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208 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Framework of neurons |
Cell body, dendrites and a single axon. |
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The nervous system consists of two kinds of cells: |
Neurons and glia. |
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Myelin |
Derivative of specialised glia cells that sheath neuronal axons. Fatty insulation around many axons. |
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Neurons |
Cells specialised for the reception, conduction, and transmission of electrochemical signals. |
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Neural signals travel (direction).
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One direction only. |
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Motor neurons |
Have their soma in the spinal cord. They receive excitation from other neurons through its dendrites and conduct impulses along its axons to the muscles. |
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Sensory neurons |
Is specialised at one end to be highly sensitive to a particular type of stimulation (light, sound, touch...). |
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Glia |
Provide framework to support network of neurons. Insulate neurons from one another. Provide nutrition to neurons. Clean out foreign materials and debris. Provide chemical barrier (blood-brain barrier). May play role in complex behaviour. |
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Blood-brain barrier |
Impedes the passage of many toxic substances from the blood into the brain. |
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Astroglia |
Star-shaped, symmetrical; nutritive and support function. Play a role in allowing the passage of some chemicals from the blood into the CNS neurons and in blocking other chemicals. |
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Microglia |
Small, mesodermally derived; defensive function. Respond to injury or disease by multiplying, engulfing cellular debris, and triggering inflamatory response. |
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Oligodendroglia |
Asymmetrical; form myelin around axons in the brain and the spinal cord. |
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Schwann cell |
Asymmetrical; wraps around peripheral nerves to form myelin. |
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Cell membrane of neuron |
Semipermeable membrane that encloses neuron. |
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Dendrites |
Short processes emanating from the cell body, which receive most of the synaptic contacts from other neurons. |
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Cell body of neuron |
The metabolic center of the neuron, also called soma. |
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Nodes of Ranvier |
The gaps between sections of myelin. |
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Terminal buttons |
Buttonlike endings of the axon branches, which release chemicals into synapses. |
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Synapses
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The gaps between adjacent neurons across which chemical signals are transmitted. |
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Neural transmission |
Electrochemical event. Transmition of impulses. |
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Neural transmission channels |
- Voltage-gated Na+ channel = diffusion of sodium ion into the cell. - K+ channel = diffusion of potasium ions out of the cell. - Sodium-potassium pump = pumping Na+ out and K+ into the cell. |
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Resting Potential |
-50 to -80 mV Results from the fact that the ratio of negative to positive charges is greater inside the neuron than outside. |
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Electrical gradient |
Difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of the cell. |
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Electrical polarization |
Difference in electrical charge between two locations. |
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Graded potential |
Short-term electrical changes in the dendrites and cell body caused by stimulation from neighbouring axons. |
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Depolarising |
Excitatory, reduction in membrane potential. |
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Hyperpolarising |
Inhibitory, increase in membrane potential. |
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Action potential |
Nerve impulse. A rapid depolarization and slight reversal of the usual polarization. Reversal of membrane potential from about -70 to about +50mV. |
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Action potential process |
1. Voltage-gated Na+ channels open: internal voltage goes up to +40mV. 2. K+ channels open: decrease in internal voltage to -70mV, now K+ ions outside cell and Na+ inside cell. 3. Sodium-potassium pump activated: to restore ionic balance of Na+ ions inside and K+ ions outside. |
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Properties of action potentials |
In any myelinated neuron the action potential travels at the same speed in one direction only. Action potentials are uniform in size, they do not decay or reduce intensity as they travel. An action potential is the same irrespective of the size of the graded potentials that activate it. More nerves will be involved in a strong reaction as opposed to a weak one.
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The rate of transmission of action potentials for a single neuron will increase as: |
A function of the strength of the stimulus. |
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Speed of neural impulse is determined by: |
- The diameter of the axon. - Whether an axon is myelinated or no. |
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Brief period of about 1 to 2 milliseconds after the initiation of an action potential during which it is impossible to elicit a second one. |
Refractory period |
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The refractory period is responsible for two important characteristics of neural activity. These are: |
It is responsible for the fact that action potentials travel in only one direction. Also responsible for the fact that the rate of neural firing is related to the intensity of stimulation. |
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Synaptic cleft |
200-300 angstrom gap between the terminal button of one neuron and the membrane wall of the next neuron. |
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In a resting state, a neuron is said to be: |
polarized. |
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Neurotransmitter typically have one of two effects on postsynaptic neurons: |
They either depolarize them or hyperpolarize them. |
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Postsynaptic deporalizations are commonly referred to in their abbreviated form: |
EPSP |
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There are 2 main receptors to which a neurotransmitter can bind to the postsynaptic neuronal membrane: |
- Ionotropic receptors - Metabotropic receptors |
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Ionotropic receptors |
Directly controls an ion channel on the postsynaptic membrane wall. When a neurotransmitter molecule binds to an ionotropic receptor, the channel opens or closes, thereby altering the flow of ions into or out of the neuron. |
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Metabotropic receptors |
Indirectly controls an ion channel on the postsynaptic membrane wall by releasing G-protein molecule inside of the postsynaptic neuron. |
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Neurotransmitter are inactivated by: |
- Ejection - By being metabolised - Drifting away |
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Neurotransmitters can be either: |
Excitatory or inhibitory. |
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Excitatory neurotransmitters |
Cause excitation at the post-synaptic cell (EPSP), which increases the probability of the neuron producing an action potential. |
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Inhibitory neurotransmitters |
Cause inhibition of the post-synaptic cell (IPSP), reducing the probability of the neuron producing an action potential. |
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There is only one class of large-molecule neurotransmitters: |
Neuropeptides |
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Neurotransmitter classes |
Acetylcholine, Monoamines, Amino acids, Peptides, Purines and Gases. |
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Acetylcholine |
Small-molecule neurotransmitter at neuromuscular junctions, at many of the synapses in the autonomic nervous system, and at synapses in several parts of the CNS. |
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Which are the four monoamine neurotransmitters? |
Dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine and serotonin. |
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Amino acids |
Molecular building blocks of proteins. |
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Is the most prevalent inhibitory neurotransmitter |
GABA |
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Soluble-gas neurotransmitters includes: |
Nitric oxide and carbon monoxide. |
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Soluble-gas neurotransmitters are produced in |
the neural cytoplasm and immediately diffuse through the cell membrane into the extracellular fluid and then into nearby cells. |
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Soluble-gas neurotransmitters easily pass through cell membranes because they are |
soluble in lipids. |
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The brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter
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Glutamate
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Responsible for regulation of sleep-wake cycles and arousal activation. Abnormal levels associated with depression. |
Serotonin |
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Involved in voluntary muscular activity and memory. |
Acethylcholine |
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Mostly inhibitory (pain control) but has excitatory role in the hippocampus which affects learning and emotional tone ('runners high'). |
Endorphins |
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Neuroactive drugs can affect the nervous system in the following ways: |
Disruption of neural transmission or disruption of synaptic transmission. |
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Alcohol
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Blocks initiation of impulse (inhibitory).
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Cocaine and anaesthesia |
Block propagated action potential (inhibitory). |
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LSD, nicotine and caffeine |
Mimics transmitter (excitatory). |
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There are two types of nerve pathways: |
Afferent and Efferent |
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Afferent nerve pathways |
Feed information (input) to the brain. |
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Efferent nerve pathways |
Send information (output) to the body. |
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The peripheral nervous system can be subdivided into |
Somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system. |
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Somatic Nervous System |
Transmits commands to the voluntary skeletal muscles and receives information from the muscles and skin. |
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Autonomic Nervous System |
Sends to and receives information from the glands and organs of the body. |
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The Autonomic Nervous System is comprised of 2 subsystems: |
Sympathetic branch (arousing the organism) and Parasympathetic branch (decreased arousal of organism). |
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The CNS is divided into |
Brain (forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain) and spinal cord. |
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The 2 types of receptors to which a neurotransmitter can bind to the postsynaptic neuronal membrane. |
Ionotropic receptors and metabotropic receptors |
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Sensory Association Cortex |
Information from the primary somatosensory zone and the secondary somatosensory zone are integrated in the tertiary somatosensory zone (perception). |
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Motor Association Cortex |
The tertiary motor area processes information from the sensory unit and translates it into intentions. These intentions are then translated into patterns of action in the primary motor area and the secondary motor area. Which are responsible for programming and executing movements and behaviours. |
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Location of the five primary sensory areas and the primary motor cortex. |
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Important areas of the brain |
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Lobes of the brain (geographic division). |
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Frontal Lobes |
Is 1/3 of the brain mass and is responsible for: - THINKING AND REASONING - Prefrontal cortex (dorsolateral and orbito-frontal areas): Initiation and planning. - Frontal eye fields control eye movement and gaze - Broca's area: motor movement associated with speech. |
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Parietal Lobe |
-Integrating visual input and monitoring the body's position in space. -Processing somatic sensations and perceptions. Integrating sensory input from somatic, auditory and visual regions of the brain. |
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Temporal Lobe |
-Processing of auditory sensations, and auditory visual perception. -Wernicke's area: understanding written and spoken language. -Long-term storage of sensory information (memory). The addition of affective (emotional) tone to sensory information. |
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Occipital lobe |
-To receive and process visual information directly from the eyes. |
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Thalamus |
Information from the eyes, ears and skin pass through the thalamus to higher levels of processing in the cerebral cortex. |
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Hypothalamus |
-Part of limbic system. - Located beneath the thalamus and midbrain. - Connects to the midbrain and forebrain. - Involved in: - Regulation of eating and drinking behaviours. - Temperature regulation. - Sexual behaviour. - Aggression. - Regulation of sympathetic nervous system. - Regulation of pituitary gland activity. |
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Basal Ganglia |
Connects to the frontal lobes and is heavily involved in the control and regulation of movement. |
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Ventricles |
They are filled with cerebro-spinal fluid (CSF), which is produced by the choroid plexus. |
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The limbic system |
Widely implicated in memory, motivation and emotional experience. Controls emotional feelings and initiates motor reactions to emotional stimuli. |
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Corpus Callosum |
It connects the right and left hemispheres and facilitates interhemispheric communication. |
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The human motor system is comprised of: |
Muscles Motor Neurons Spinal Cord Subcortical Motor Structures Cortical Motor Structures |
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Types of muscle: |
Smooth muscles, skeletal (striated) muscles and cardiac muscles. |
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Muscles are: |
Specialized soft tissue that turn energy into motion with the basic action of contraction. |
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Muscles are formed by: |
Fiber that contain many myofibrils, which are cylinders of muscle proteins that allow muscle to contract. |
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Muscles constrict in: |
antagonistic pairs. |
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Smooth muscles |
Control the movement of internal organs (involuntary muscle). |
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Skeletal (striated) muscle |
Control the movements of the body in relation to the environment. |
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Cardiac muscle |
Have properties intermediate between smooth and striated muscles. Also involuntary. |
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Motor output is guided by: |
Sensory input. |
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Apraxia |
Disorder of voluntary movement that is not attributable to a simple motor deficit or to any deficit in comprehension or motivation. |
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The primary interaction between muscles and the nervous system arises from: |
Alpha Motor Neurons |
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Motor unit |
A single motor neuron and the multiple motor fibers it innervates. |
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When a motor neuron fires an action potential, this causes: |
a release of acetylcholine at the synapse between the neuron and the muscle (Neuromuscular Junction). |
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Interneurons serve as: |
a connection between the sensory and motor pathways for reflexes. |
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Nerve fibers |
Thin and thread-like transmission lines that carry signals between nerves and receptor in the skin, muscles and internal organs.
Responsible for delivering signals and sensations from the nerves to various parts of the body. |
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Class A nerve fibers relate to _________, class B nerve fibers cover __________, while class C nerve fibers are responsible for __________. |
- Class A : muscle and tendon movement. - Class B : involuntary impulses - Class C : pain and temperature sensations |
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Acetylcholine activates the _____________ on each muscle fiber and causes the fiber to contract. |
motor end-plate |
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The cerebellum is involved in: |
the smooth performance of behaviour. The form of movements. |
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Basal Ganglia is generally considered to include: |
Caudate nucleus, putamen and globus pallidus. |
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Caudate nucleus and putamen are ____________ areas while the globus pallidus is an ____________ area. |
- Caudate nucleus and putamen - receptive areas, receive information from the sensory areas of the thalamus and cerebral cortex. - Globus pallidus - output area, sending information to the thalamus. |
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The role of the basal ganglia is to: |
- Organise actions of sequences. Order of action sequences. - Select responses to inhibit or make.
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How do we move? |
1. Tertiary motor zone: Lists options & decides, check with memory, decision reached. 2. Secondary motor area: plan action. 3. Primary motor area: signal muscles to move according to plan. - Messages travel down corticospinal tracts. - Messages from secondary motor area are also sent to cerebellum via thalamus to coordinate actions. - Corticospinal messages enter pyramidal nuclei in the brainstem. - Messages from the corticospinal tracts are joined by messages from the cerebellum travelling down extrapyramidal tracts to coordinate action into a smooth graceful form. - Message reaches interneuron, which fires and passes messages to alpha motor neuron, which fires and triggers the firing of a specific muscle fiber. |
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Lateral corticospinal tract is responsible for the movement of: |
digits and limbs |
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Ventral corticospinal tract is reponsible for the movement of: |
muscles in the midline of the body |
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Humans ingest carbohydrates which are converted into: |
glucose via digestion. |
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The amount of glucose that cells receive depends on 2 pancreatic hormones: |
- Insulin: Enables glucose to enter cells. - Glucogen: Raises concentration of glucose by stimulating the liver to convert stored glycogen into glucose. |
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Cholecystokinin (CCK) release is triggered by food in the intestine and therefore: |
Inhibits feeding. |
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The principal function of the hypothalamus is to control the ____________. The ______________ is a direct neuron connection between these two structures. |
Pituitary gland; pituitary stalk (infundibulum). |
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The main nerve tract between the lower brainstem and the forebrain is the: |
Medial Forebrain Bundle (MFB). |
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Hypothalamic regulatory mechanisms |
The hypothalamus has a feedback mechanism to maintain a constant level of circulating hormones. The frontal lobes and limbic system regulate hypothalamic activity. Hypothalamic activity can be controlled by the brains responses to experience. |
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Cessation or reduction in feeding by damage to the lateral hypothalamus is called: |
Aphagia |
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Damage to the ventromedial hypothalamus causes an increase in food intake called: |
Hyperphagia, which results from disruption of motivational processes underlying satiety and increased secretion of insulin by the pancreas. |
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Leptin Process |
1. Fat cells secrete leptin. 2. Leptin reaches leptin receptor in hypothalamic regions, including the lateral hypothalamus and the arcuate, supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei. 3. Leptin receptor activation suppresses neuropeptide production release. 4. Leptin inhibits arcuate neurons releasing NPY and AgRP, but excites neurons releasing aMSH. NPY receptive neurons in those regions normally trigger feeding, while melanocortin-receptive neurons (excited by aMSH, inhibited by AgRP) normally inhibit eating. As leptin level fall, the circuits will induce hunger. 5. Leptin receptor activation also increases levels of corticotropin- releasing hormone (CRH), which suppresses hunger. |
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Leptin |
is a hormone made by fat cells which regulates the amount of fat stored in the body. Satiety hormone. |
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Osmotic pressure |
Enables water from inside of a cell to move into the extracellular fluid to equalise NaCl concentrations. |
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Regulatory Behaviours are controlled by: |
Homeostatic mechanisms, while non-regulatory behaviours are not. |
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The pituitary gland is divided into: |
- Anterior pituitary - Posterior pituitary |
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Hypovolemic Thirst |
A thirst based on low volume thirst. |
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Two means of detecting loss of blood volume: |
- Baroreceptors: attached to large veins that detect blood pressure. - Angiotensin II: loss of blood volume. |
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OVLT are specialised neurons that are responsible for: |
The detection of osmotic pressure and triggering osmotic thirst. |
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Wavelengths determine the___________________ of the light: |
colour or hue |
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Amplitude of the wave determines the __________________ of the colour. |
brightness |
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The light reflected into your eyes from the objects around is the basis for: |
your ability to see them. |
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The amount of light reaching the retinas is regulated by: |
the irises. |
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Light enters the eye through the ________ the hole in the iris. |
pupil |
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Pupils adjust in size in response to changes in: |
illumination |
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The ability to detect the presence of dimly lit objects is called ____________ while the ability to see details in objects is called ______________. |
sensitivity ; acuity |
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When pupils are constricting the image falling on the retina is: |
sharper and there is greater depth of focus. |
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Behind each pupil is a ______, which focuses incoming light on the retina. |
lens |
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When we direct our gaze at something near, the tension on the ligaments holding each lens in place is adjusted by the _________________, and the lens assumes its natural cylindrical shape. |
ciliary muscles
This increases the ability of the lens to refract light and brings close objects into sharp focus. This is called acommodation. |
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After light passes through the pupil and the lens, it reaches the retina. The retina converts light into _________, conducts them toward the _______, and participates in the processing of signals. |
neural signals; CNS |
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Human retinas have two types of receptors: |
Cones and Rods |
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Cones enable __________ vision that predominates in good lightning and provides high acuity. |
Photopic v |
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Rods enable _________ vision which is sensitive in dim illumination. |
Scotopic |
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The optic tracts carry information to the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN) of the thalamus. Then... |
Information from the LGN travels via LGN neurons (geniculostriate pathway) to the striate cortex in the occipital lobes. |
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Area V1 (Striate Cortex) divides visual information into 3 types of info: |
- Colour - Form - Movement |
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Lesions to area V4 _____________ and lesions to area V5 _______________. |
V4 Colour blind V5 Lost ability to perceive motion |
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Visual-form agnosia |
Inability to recognise visual forms. |
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Colour agnosia |
Inability to recognise colours. |
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Prosopagnosia |
Inability to recognise faces. |
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Opticataxia (through damage to the parietal lobe visual pathways). |
Inability to use objects to guide action with intact object recognition. |
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Sounds travel in a wave. Wavelength determines the ____________ of sound. While amplitude of the wave determines the ___________ of sound. |
tone/pitch; volume |
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How do soundwaves travel down the ear canal? 1. Change in ear pressure creates movements of the ear drum (tympanic membrane). 2. Movement of ear drum creates movement of ossicles (stapes, incus, malleus). 3. Movement of ear drum and ossicles mirror amplitude and frequency. 4. Ossicles press on oval window of cochlear (fluid filled). 5. Movements of cochlear induce fluid waves inside cochlear. |
6. The movement of the ossicles creates pressure changes in the fluid of the cochlear. 7. These movements in the cochlear induce oscillating movement of the Basilar membrane. 8. Different parts of the Basilar membrane respond to different sound frequences. 9. Hair cells (in Organ of Corti) respond to movement of fluid within cochlear. 10. Hair cells form synapses with neurons. 11. Axons enter auditory nerve (branch of auditory-vestibular nerve). 12. Auditory nerve projects to the cochlear nucleus of the medulla. Where multiple pathways carry information from the cochlear nucleus to the superior olivary nucleus and the inferior colliculus (then to the MGN of thalamus, then the auditory cortex of temporal lobe).
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The Organ of Corti consists of three main structures: |
- Sensory cells - Framework of supporting cells - Terminations of auditory fibres. |
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Auditory processing occurs at the |
temporal lobe |
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Superior olivary nucleus |
processes binaural information |
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Humans can detect sound dependent on 2 cues: |
Intensity differences (difference in loudness) or latency differences (difference in time of arrival to each ear). |
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Auditory cortex consists of isofrequency bands. These neuronal areas map specific _________. |
frequencies of sound |
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Effects of damage to auditory system: |
- Conduction deafness - Sensorineural deafness - Central deafness |
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Conduction deafness |
Vibrations of auditory stimuli do not reach the cochlear. Commonest form is fusing of the ossicles. |
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Sensorineural deafness: |
Auditory fibers do not respond normally, deficit is usually permanent. Mutation of gene GJB2 may be cause of 50% of congenital hearing impairments. |
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Central deafness |
Results in lesions to brain structures. Word deafness arises from cortical damage. Cortical deafness results from bilateral destruction of neural inputs to auditory cortex. Failure to recognise words, but can hear and speak. |
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The 4 touch receptors: |
Pacinian corpuscles Ruffini's endings Merkel's disc Meissner's corpuscles
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Merkel's discs |
Detect shape/form, especially responsive to edges and isolated points on surfaces. |
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Meissner's corpuscles |
Detect shape/form but with less spatial resolution. They are also more numerous than Merkel's discs. Specialised to respond to changes in stimuli. |
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Pacinian corpuscles |
detect vibration |
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Ruffini's ending |
detect stretching |
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Nerve fibers carry information from skin to spinal cord. Within the spinal cord, two major pathways carry information to the brain. These are: |
Dorsal columns system (touch) and ventral column system (pain and temperature). |
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Leptin Process Easy Version |
Fat cells secrete leptin. Leptin reaches the leptin receptor in hypothalamic regions, including LH, arcuate, supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei. The activation of leptin receptors supresses neuropeptide production and release. Leptin inhibits arcuate neuron releasing NPY and AGRP, but excites neurons that release aMSN. NPY triggers feeding, aMSN inhibits feeding and AGRP inhibits aMSN. |
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Touch receptors sends axons to the dorsal column of the spinal cord. These axons synapse in dorsal column nuclei of the medulla. Information then... |
crosses the midline of the brain stem before synapsing in thalamic nuclei. Outputs from thalamus travel to primary somatosensory cortex (post-central gyrus, parietal lobe). |
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Nocireceptors |
Peripheral receptors and nerve fibers specialised for signalling noxious stimulation. |
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Free nerve ending CMR1 detects ________, VR1 ________, while VRL1 ________. |
CMR1 low temperature VR1 moderate temperature VRL1 high temperature |
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Sensation of pain/temperature is transmitted by |
anterolateral (spinothalamic) system / ventral column system. |
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Pain information is sent to and integrated in the: |
cingulate cortex. Amount of activation in anterior cingulate and somatosensory cortex correlates with degree of discomfort. |
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Olfactory epithelium (dorsal portion of nasal cavity) contains 3 types of cells: |
- Receptor cells - Supporting cells - Basal cells |
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Olfactory receptor cells are bipolar neurons and are the only neurons that can: |
be replaced during adulthood. |
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Smell goes straight to be brain because: |
smell is the only sense that synapses directly into the cortex without first passing through the thalamus. |
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Smell.
Airborne molecules are trapped by mucosal layer of epithelium. Binding to proteins in mucosal layer trap that then transport these molecules to receptor surfaces. The odorant molecule interacts with receptor proteins located on the surface of olfatory cilia and dendritic knob of the receptor cells. |
The interaction with G-protein receptors triggers synthesis of second messenger (incl. cAMP and IP3). cAMP opens a cation channel to initiate generator current which depolarises the olfactory receptor cell--> action potential formation. Axons of olfactory nerve terminate in olfactory bulb that sends output to various brain regions (prepyriform cortex, entorhinal cortex, amygdala and hypothalamus). |
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5 tastes |
salty, sour, sweet, bitter, umami |
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Where are the taste receptor located? |
Papillae on the tongue. |
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The cortical taste areas are in the: |
Somatosensory cortex, parieta lobe. |
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Vestibular control is related to: |
- Monitor position and movement of the head. - Sense of equilibrium. - Coordination. - Adjustment of body parts. |
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Semicircular canals detect: |
Head rotation |
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Otiolith organs (utricle and saccute) detect: |
force of gravity and head tilt. |
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In 90 to 95% of case language impairment there is damage associated with _________________ damage. |
left hemisphere |
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Aphasia |
Disorder of language apparent in speech, writing or reading produced by brain lesion correspondent to those functions. |
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Paraphasia |
Production of unintended syllables, words or phrases during effort to speak. |
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Fluent aphasia (Wernicke's, transcortical, conduction and anomic aphasia) |
Fluent speech but difficulties in auditory verbal comprehension, or in the repetition of words, phrases or sentences spoken by others. |
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Non-fluent aphasia (Broca's, transcortical motor and global aphasia ) |
Difficulty in articulating but relatively good auditory verbal comprehension. |
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Pure aphasia |
Selective impairments of reading, writing or the recognition of words. |
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Wernicke's aphasia |
Inability to comprehend words or to arrange sounds into coherent speech. Inability to isolate the significant phonemic sound units. Impairment in writing. Deficit to speech as the person confuses phonetic characteristics --> word salad |
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Transcortical aphasia |
Intact ability to repeat and understand words as well as naming objects. However, there is a loss of the ability to speak spontaneously or cannot comprehend (meaning) words even though they can repeat them.
-Loss of cortex outside traditional language areas. |
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Conduction aphasia |
They can speak easily, name objects and comprehend speech, but they cannot repeat words.
Disconnection between "perceptual motor image" in parietal-temporal cortex and motor systems producing words. |
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Anomic aphasia |
Deficit to naming objects, specific deficit to recalling nouns with intact use of action verbs.
Left temporal lobe damage (earliest indicator of Alzheimer's). |
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Broca's aphasia |
Difficulty speaking but continue to understand speech. Difficulty switching from one sound to the next. |
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Wernicke-Geschwind Model
Speaking a heard word |
Information about the sound is analysed by primary auditory cortex and transmitted to Wernicke's area. That then analyses the sound information to determine what was said. The information in transmitted then through the arcuate fasciculus to Broca's area. This area forms a motor plan to repeat the word and sends the info to the motor cortex. The motor cortex implements the plan by manipulating the larynx and related structures to say the word.
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Wernicke-Geschwind Model Speaking a written word |
Image analysed by visual cortex which transmits the information to the angular gyrus, which then decodes the image information to recognise word. This word is associated with the spoken form in Wernicke's area. Information about the word is transmitted via arcuate fasciculus to Broca's area. Broca's area formulates a motor plan to say the appropriate word and transmit it to the motor cortex for implementation. |
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Human Sexual Response Cycle (Masters & Johnson). |
1. The excitement phase 2. The plateau phase 3. The orgasmic phase 4. The resolution phase (refractory for males). |
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Lesions to arcuate fasciculus disrupts the transfer from Wernicke's to Broca's, so the patient... |
has difficulty repeating spoken words, but may retain comprehension of spoken language and may still be able to speak spontaneously. |
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Lesion to the angular gyrus disrupts flow of information from visual cortex so... |
patient has difficulty saying words he has seen but not heard. |
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The medial preoptic area of the hypothalamus (medial preoptic nucleus, MPN) is the most critical area for ______ sexual behaviour. |
male |
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The ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus (VHM) is the most critical area for ______ sexual behaviour. |
female |
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In erectile dysfunction dopamine agonists (apomorphine) _________ sexual function. |
improve |
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In both men and woman a side-effect of SSRI's is ______ of ejaculation/orgasm. |
inhibition |
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Low doses of alcohol ________ physical arousal while high doses of alcohol _______ physical arousal. |
increase; decrease |
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Memory divides into: |
Declarative and non-declarative (explicit or implicit). |
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Declarative memory divides itself into facts (semantic memory) and events (episodic memory). While non-declarative... |
divides itself into skills and habits, priming, simple classical conditioning, and non-associative learning. |
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Retrograde amnesia is the failure to recall events experienced ______ the trauma, while anterograde amnesia is the failure to recall events experienced _____ the trauma. |
before; after |
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Brain regions involved in human memory |
Prefrontal cortex, frontal lobes, medial temporal lobe, basal ganglia, amygdala. |
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Frontal love damage is associated with difficulties with... |
working with memory |
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Hebbian synapse |
Synapse that can change its strength |
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Long term potentiation LTP |
a long term increase in the EPSP of a neuron |
