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181 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Qualitative research is... |
Aims to understand and explain the meaning of things and their interrelationships in non-numeric terms |
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In qualitative research... the researcher... |
- Conducts the study in a natural setting - Builds a complex & holistic picture - Studies person within contexts & process - Analyses words ( and images) - Uses multiple data collection methods |
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When should we use qualitative research |
- Exploring an issue
- needs complex details - understand why and how - Empower individuals - Explain mechanisms - Understand context - Develop theories |
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5 different approaches :METHODOLOGIES |
1. Narrative 2. Phenomenological study 3. Grounded theory study 4. Ethnographic study 5. Case study |
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Narrative Research Design
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- Stories/ narratives told to the researcher or found in documents - Study a single individual and his/ her life experiences ( or a few individuals) - Bibliography, autobiography, life history |
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Rationale of a narrative |
need to tell stories of an individuals experiences |
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Data involved in a narrative |
interviews
documents |
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Analysis in a narrative |
Re-storying to develop life course & key events (epiphanies)/ details about historical & social contexts |
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Final report of a narrative |
Chronology, Authors presence |
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Challenges of narrative research |
- clearly understand participants in multiple contexts - Active collaboration with participants - Reflect on researchers own personal/ political background |
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Phenomenology |
- A phenomenon is an occurence- observable/ understandable as an experience or fact - Psychological concepts, physical conditions, process, relationship, experienced by the participants |
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What is phenomenology? |
- Interprets and experience by listening to different stories of the participants (examines the phenomena through the subjective eyes of the participants) - to understand and describe the essence of a phenomenon for several individuals ( 5~25 people) - Reduces the lived experiences to essential meanings ( shared universal meaning) |
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Rationale of phenomenology |
•need to describe the “essential,structure” of the experience |
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Data in phenomenology |
Interview, participant observation, documents |
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Analysis in a Phenomonology |
Use of rigid phenomenological data analysis steps & bracketing |
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Final Report |
•: describe the “essence” Textural description ( = Whatexperienced?) Structuraldescription (= How experienced?) |
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Challenges of phenomenology |
•Understanding broader philosophicalassumptions •Complicated– individual experience at its core•Bracketingpersonal experiences in analysis**Suspendingresearchers’ ownassumptions |
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Grounded Theory |
•Study to generate atheory – which is grounded in data from the field. •A theory – explains the phenomenon, action, interaction, or process •Enter field ‘open’ to possibilities; as much as is possible(reflexivity required) without preconceived notions about what you willlearn/find |
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Rational of grounded theory |
When a theory is not available to explain a process. Need to ground a theory in the views of participants |
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Data in a grounded theory study |
Primarily interviews - samplings of 20-60 people or until saturation |
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Analysis |
3 steps of coding |
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Final report |
•present a visual model (e.g.diagram, conditional matrix, etc.) |
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Challenges of grounded theory research |
•Set aside (pre-existing) theoreticalideas•Allow substantive theory to emerge •Determine when categories saturated•Producing a theory |
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Ethonography |
•Study to draw a “portrait” of acultural or social group or system (i.e. a culture-sharing group)•Analysis of the shared patterns ofvalues, behaviours, beliefs, language, and issues such as power, resistance,and dominance of the group.•Field work – to immerse to gain“emic” (vs. etic) perspective “gate keepers”, “key informants” |
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Rationale of Ethnography |
Needs to describe and interpret the shared patterns of culture of a group |
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Data of Ethnography |
participant observations, interviews, artifacts |
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alalysis of ethnography |
To produce "thick description" of the patterns |
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Final report of ethnography |
Researcher as a "story teller" |
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Challenges of understanding Ethnography |
-Understanding the meaning of a social- cultural system - Extensive time to collect data - researcher may go native |
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Case Studies |
Astudy to explore a case (or multiple case) over time. Acase: a “bounded system” (by time & place) which has interrelated partsthat form a whole. Theresearcher aims to:-providean in-depth description ofthe case situate the case within its larger“context |
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Rationale of a case study |
•The researcher has identifiable cases with boundaries, also seeks anin-depth understanding of the cases or a comparison of several cases. |
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Data in a case study |
•Multiple sources of information (observations, interviews, focus group,document, etc.) |
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Analysis |
•Within-case / cross-case analysis |
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Final Report |
Detailed description with assertions |
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Challenges of Case Study |
•Consider single or multiple case(s)•More than one dilutes analysis •No more than 4 or 5 •Multiple allow generalizability •Rationale for sampling strategy •Decide boundaries or constraints of case –Time, events, processes |
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Factors to consider when choosing methodology |
•Outcome:focus, purpose ? •Audience:gatekeepers’ preference?•Background:trainings of the researcher?•Scholarly:literature/ what’s needed most?•Personal approach: yourown strengths and interests (structured / flexible)? •Resource: availabletime & funds? |
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5 Approaches: Common Process |
- Research problem - Research Questions - Data Collection - Data analysis - Research Report |
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A paradigm is |
- your world view (way of thinking about the world) - your set of beliefs |
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Researchers philosophical assumptions on 3 basic things.... |
- Ontology - Epistemology - Methodology |
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Ontology |
- "to be" - the nature of reality a philosophical concept/ assumption |
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Realism |
- Associated with quantitative - Positivism - uses experiments to find the truth - scientific based - exists even if not yet known |
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Relativism |
- Associated with qualitative - Constructivism - searches for meaning rather than truth in the experiences of individuals - belief that reality cannot exist without context - realities are influenced by experiences and social interactions |
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Epistemology |
- how can we know what we know? - what is the relationship between the researcher and what can be known? |
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Methodology |
- Theories of knowledge - How can we know what we know? - Methodology is driven by/ directed by our worldview/ paradigm |
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Qualitative research process |
1. General topic (problem, issue, needs) 2. Literature review 3. Design 4. Data collection 5. Analysis & Validation 6. Writing & Dissemimation |
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1. Research topic/ problem |
Sourcesfor research problems: 1.Social/ personal problems to be addressed (useyour ‘sociological imagination’ p.35) 2.Issueor group that is poorly understood 3.Gaps inscholarly / professional literature4.Advisors’research agenda |
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2. Literature review provides |
1.Background about the topic? (e.g.,prevalence, seriousness of the issue) 2.Any existing theories? – Priori theories (lensto understand the issue & interpret the findings)3. Anyuseful concepts? *Sensitizing concepts(potentialchecking points for the research) |
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3. Writing a "purpose statement" |
Thepurpose of this __1___ study is to ___2___ the ___3____ for __4___. 1=tradition of inquiry (methodology and/or paradigm) 2 =understand / describe / develop /discover/ explore 3 =central phenomenon (topic) of the study 4 =unit of analysis (the participants) |
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Research questions should start with words like... |
“What”,“How”, “Why” |
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question types |
exploratory, explanatory, descriptive, emancipatory |
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Central question (one) |
The broadestquestion you could possibly pose. |
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Sub-questions (a few) |
Morenarrow - break down major issue into subtopics |
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Tips for Research Questions |
•Make sure they are aligned with theresearch purpose •Keep it simple. Don’ttry to solve everything within the topic of your interest •Pursue one point of inquiry in onequestion i.e. don’task how does the participant describe experiences of belongingness andthe effects it has on her self esteem? |
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Always ask questions that.... |
•Askquestions that have open-ended possibilities for answers: •Whatare the experiences of … •Howdoes a participant describe X… •Inwhat ways does X play a role in Y •Howdoes the participant identify X… |
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what types of questions are broader.... research questions or interview questions? |
Research questions |
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Reflexivity |
1. consider/ reflect on our past experiences with regard to the phenomenon being explored 2. Discuss how these past experiences shape your interpretation of the phenomenon - A good qualitative researcher makes their "position" explicit |
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Interview |
•Theinterview is a specific form of conversation” where knowledge is producedthrough the interaction between an interviewer and an interviewee. |
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4 types of questions often included in the interview guide |
1. Essential Q's 2. Extra Q's 3. Probing (prompt) Q's 4. Throw away Q's |
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Essential Questions |
- concern the central focus of the study - develop from your research questions |
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Extra questions |
-Almost equivalent to the essential questions but worded in slightly different way to check the reliability of responses. |
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Probing Questions |
- Enables the interviewer to draw out more complete/ detailed information - May emerge during the course of the interview |
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4. Throw away questions |
- Used to develop rapport at the beginning - To set the pace or allow a change in focus during the interview - To allow the participant to "cool down" at the end |
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Typical content of qualitative interview Qs |
1.Experience& Behaviour Q (to get experience,action, etc. 2.Opinion & Value Q (to get opinion, judgment, value) 3.Feeling Q ( to elicit emotions,adjective response) 4. Knowledge Q (to learn what they know -- facts) 5. Sensory Q (to enter the sensory apparatus) 6. Background Q ( to get demographic background) |
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Good interview questions entail... |
- open ended q's - allow for further probing - To obtain more in-depth information in story form - To elicit participants voice/ viewpoints - Asking for clarification if needed |
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Types of interview questions to avoid |
- Yes/No (Forces the participant to answer in a certain manner) - Double-barreled questions (and)- less detail as participant is trying to answer 2 questions - Leading question (you dont like that, do you?) - |
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A sample |
- a unit of analysis - researcher needs to select, who, when, when |
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Purposeful sampling |
(= Non-probability Sampling)•to gaininsights from the selectedsample •not totry to generalize results |
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Probability Sampling |
(e.g. random sampling) •to getan average•to generalizeresults•usedin quantitative research |
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Maximum Variation Sampling |
•To document diverse variations & identify important common patterns(ideal for QR in general ) |
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Snowball or chain sampling |
•Identifycases of interest from people who know those who know the informationrich |
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Convenience sampling |
•Saves time, money, and effort, but at expense of information and credibility |
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Stratified Purposeful Sampling |
•illustrates subgroups and facilitates comparisons |
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Sampling strategies should be logically determined by |
•thepurpose of your study •thetradition of inquiry •thepractical realities of your study (e.g., access to participants, time, site,resource, etc.) |
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What type of study was the growing pains study? |
•Convenience Sampling + Maximum variation Students(in pairs) will recruit one participant using :1.pre-existing contactstheletterof invitation email |
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Participant Criteria in the GP study |
Tobe eligible, participants must be:1) Afirst year student at Brock University2)Voluntarily agree to participate in the study |
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What is mental health? |
•Successful performance of mentalfunction, resulting in productive activities •Fulfilling relationships withother people•Adapting to change and copingwith normal stresses of life •A springboard of thinking,learning, communicating, emotional growth, resilience and self esteem |
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Anxiety is... |
•A normal feeling everyoneexperiences as a natural response to a situation (doesn’t have to be negative) •Ranges from mild to severe (panicattacks), and can interfere with day-to-day living |
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Depression is... |
•Depression is when this continuesand interest in normal activities is lost beyond a two week time period •Serious illness that can berecurrent •Illness that not a lot of peopleseek help for, but often are concerned about related problems (e.g. fatigue) |
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Suicide is... |
Leading cause of death for people aged 15-24 |
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Substance Abuse... |
•Substance use is a risk factorfor other mental health problems (and we’ve seen that mental health problemsmay be risk factor for increased substance use) |
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A-L-R-S |
•Approachthe topic and Assessfor the risk of suicide and/or harm •Listennon-judgmentally •Reassureand Referto campus and/or community supports and •Supportbefore/after and encourage other supports |
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What is an interview? |
Theinterview is a specific form of conversationwhere knowledgeis produced through the interactionbetween an interviewer and an interviewee.” |
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what is the purpose of an in-depth interview? |
Thepurpose of in-depth interviews is to allow people to explaintheir experiences, attitudes, feelings, and definitions of the situation in their own terms andin ways that are meaningfulto them. |
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The interview process |
9 steps.... 1)Decide on Research Questions2)Identify interviewees3)Determine the type of interview4)Use adequate recording procedures5)Interview protocol6)Pilot testing7)Location8)Consent form9)Good interview procedures |
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1. Decide on the research questions |
related to the purpose of the study |
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2. Identify interviewees |
Sampling methods |
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3. Determine the type of interview |
- Structured - Semi- structured - Unstructured - Skype interviews - Face-to-face interviews - Focus group interviews - Telephone interviews |
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4. Use adequate recording procedures |
Quality of recording device |
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5. Use an interview protocol |
interview guide |
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6. Polit testing |
test it out |
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7. Location |
noise level, an you hear them in the recording? |
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8. Consent form |
- confedentiality - ethics |
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9. Good interview procedures |
follow them.... |
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Challenges of conducting interviews |
●Dealingwith sensitive issues ●Unexpectedparticipant behaviours●Consequencesof the researcher's own actions and subjectivities ●Phrasingand negotiating questions |
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A good research interview includes.... |
- preparation - reflection - location - Rapport/ trust - Active listening - Effective probing |
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Silent probe |
Remain silent........wait for them to continue |
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Echo probe |
Repeat the last thing they said and ask them to continue or clarify |
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The uh-huh probe |
•encourageparticipant to continue by making affirmative noises - “Uh-huh,” “yes,I see,” “right,uh-huh” |
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Focus groups
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Aform of group interview that uses the interaction/communication between research participants as a way tounderstand something Acarefully planned discussion on a particular topic moderated by a facilitator |
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how many people in a focus group?how long do they last? where do they take place"? |
5-10 people in a neutral non threatening environment |
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How do focus groups work? |
•Participantsare selected according to research question •Threefocus groups are usual for a study•Groupsare organized in a very particular way – complicated as can create differentresults (e.g., women/men; young/old; new/experienced; users/non-users) |
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Strength of focus groups |
•Quickand convenient •Toexplore feelings, perceptions, language and manner of thinking of participantsabout a particular topic (e.g., health messages, services, programs or health behaviours) •Tohelp to identify group norms and cultural practices •Topromote self-disclosure among participants•Toget ‘deeper’ andmore clarity of a particular topic (people clarify their views in discussionwith others) |
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when NOT to use focus groups |
- people are divided or angry - not a shared language - topic is to personal - topic it too heated - topic requires people to admit to unlawful or immoral activity |
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Challenges of running a focus group |
-Somedominate others silenced-Confidentiality-ManagingConflict -Timing -Maintainingfocus while allowing for group exploration |
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Assistant no1: Assistant no2: |
ass1: Record highlights on a flip chart ass2: Technical support |
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Possibly distorted responses due to |
- Self-servingresponse - Giveanswers they know you want - Recallerror (e.g., forget) - Lackof awareness / knowledge of the issue - Needto be able to explain verbally |
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Step 1 of conducting a focus group |
1.Introduction of moderator & assistant. 2.Describe the objectives of the focus group. 3.Have participants sign a consent form. (addconfidentiality among the group). 4.Have participants introduce themselves. 5.Create relaxed atmosphere. (e.g. refreshments, etc.) |
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Step 2 of conducting a focus group |
•Letparticipants know the procedure.•Encourageeveryone to participate. •Everyoneis expected to be open, honest and respectful to each other. •Thereis no right / wrong answers. •Ifusing a recording devise, explain the purpose for its use. |
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Step 3 group discussion: Typical procedures |
1. Warm-upwith icebreaker questions / activities2.Key Content Section - Questions should be pre-determined (you can make probe Qs if necessary) 3.Closing throw-away questions & Summary |
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Observation is |
“Theprocess of enabling researchers to learn about the activities of the peopleunder study in the natural setting through observing and participating in thoseactivities.” Apopular method in qualitative research |
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When to use observation? |
1.Makessense for your research purpose and research questions 2.Asa follow up to other methods (interviews, surveys, etc) inorder to clarify / check hypothesis, ideas, hunches 3.Youhave the time / resources / access to do it |
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Strengths of Observation |
•Illustratecontext and cultural practices •Record/ understand behaviour as it is happening •First-handencounter (e.g. people, activity, event, situation) •Collectdifferent types of data (qualitative and quantitative) – visual data, informalinterviews, etc. |
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Limitations & Challenges of observation |
- The influence of observers presence (act differently) - The selective perceptions of the observer (we see what we choose to see) - Focus only external behaviours and directly observable things (vs. what people are thinking) - Time consuming and (sometimes) tedious |
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Triangulation |
- Using other sources (interviews) tofind out the extent to which observed activities are typical or atypical. - Triangulationis also used to cross check data and findings from interviews, focus groups,quantitative surveys, etc. |
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1) Complete participant |
fully engaged with people observing |
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2) Participant observer |
participatingat the site in select activities |
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3) Non-participant / observerparticipant |
knownoutsider watching and taking notes but not participating |
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4) Complete observer |
unknown/ hidden to people being observed (also called ‘naturalistic observation |
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Three stages of observation |
entry data collection Exit |
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Step 1: Entry to the |
Negotiationwith “gatekeepers”Explainto the gatekeepers: 1.Whythem? 2.Whatyou are going to do? 3.Whatthey will get from this (benefits, risks, etc.) 4.Whatyou are going to do with your findings? |
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Stage 2: Data Collection |
•Establishgood relationship with participants: mutual trust, respect, and cooperation •It’sbetter to do more frequent, shorter observations at first, and gradually makeit longer. |
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Stage 3: Exit from the field (When, how?) |
•Whenyou reached saturation •Whenyour resources run out •Graduallycutting down on the frequency of visit •Letpeople know the research is coming to an end (“closure”) |
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what to observe? |
- Physcial setting - the participant - activities, interactions - conversations - subtle factors - Researchers own behaviour |
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Complete Observer |
Continuousnote taking |
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Participant observer or observer participant |
short form/ brief notes |
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Complete participant |
Wait until afterward |
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Typical contents of field notes |
•Time& place•Participants(numbers, roles & status, age, gender racial make up, characteristics,etc.)•Asketch of physical setting•Descriptionsof the setting, people, activities, etc.•Conversation-- Direct quotation / paraphrase / summary•Observer’scomments (reflective note;thoughts/ideas that emerge) |
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What is the purpose of organizing/ reorganizing |
•Toreally familiarize yourself with the data•Toreduce the volume of data (bycategorizing it)•Tofind significant patterns (re-organizationis helpful)•Toidentify/examine the meanings•Todevelop an explanation - the essence what the data revealed (frameworkto explain)•Toanswer your research question |
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Data analysis is.... |
A process used to generate findingsand answer research question The process of meaning-making fromthe data In qualitativeresearchanalysis is:•an inductive and comparative process•intended to be open-ended and emerging in nature•a creative act |
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Inductive analysis |
•Aswell as seeing patterns we already understand / know from the literature –(more deductive process) we ALSO….Tryto find the patterns(categories & themes) emergingfrom the data rather than beingimposedprior to data collection & analysis (inductive process) |
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Phase 1: Open coding |
Toidentify major themes (sorting intolarge groups) |
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Phase 2: Focused Coding |
Tolook at each major theme to find sub-themes (identifying different types within eachgroup) |
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Phase 3: Conceptualization |
Tomake connections to explain what the data reveals (means) (interpret & hypothesize the meanings offindings) |
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Sensitizing Concepts |
•Conceptsthat the researcher brings to the data basedon theories or literature review atthe beginning of the study. •Essentialpoints that you asked withyour research & interview questions. •Moredeductive |
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Indigenous Concepts |
•Conceptsthat werebrought by the participants,emerge during analysis, capture essence of their experiences. (Patton, 1990) •Don’tignore unexpected/ surprising conceptsemerged from the data. •More inductive |
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3 steps of open coding |
1: Reading the transcript (Raw data) 2: Underling with colour words & phrases (Codes) 3: Classifying the codes into groups (Themes) |
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what are codes? |
•Tagsor labelsfor assigning units of meaning tothe descriptive information •Attachedto words,phrases, sentences, or whole paragraphs |
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in vivo codes |
Codingthe exact words of participants (words/phrasesused bythe interviewees thatare soremarkable that they should be taken as codes) |
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Priori Codes |
Codesbased on pre-existing concepts and from research question (e.g.,sensitizing concepts) |
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Researcher- generated codes |
Createdby the researcher (e.g. indigenous; captured meaning) |
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1st round: Identifying priori codes |
1.Readthrough the transcripts line by line. 2.Underline/ highlight / circle keywords, phrases, sectionsthat you think are the “unitof meaning” (code)related to “sensitizing concepts”.(Colour coding system helps!) 3.Classifythese codes into several groups toidentify the “themes” and makea table of these major themes. |
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2nd round: |
1.Readthrough the transcripts line by line again.2.Underline/ highlight / circle key words & passages that you think are the “unitof meaning” (code)which are unexpectedly brought up by the participants. (Usedifferent colors!) 3.Classifythese indigenous codes intoa few groups to add the table of the major group of “themes”. |
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Content/ Analytic Memos |
•Yourideas, questions and thoughts aboutemerging themes & categories •Writethese down! Start this when you review your transcript and do this continuallythroughout analysis •Youcan including themes/sub-themes that you don’t see as belonging anywhere •NOTE:Use leftmarginof transcript to write memos (useright margins for codes) |
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Manifest Content |
- Elementsthat are physically present & countable in the message. (Berg,2001, p. 242) - The surfacecontentofa communication |
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Latent content (trickier) |
•Analysisextends to an interpretive reading ofthe symbolism underlying the physical data (the words by the participants). •Sometimes,what people say and what people mean are different, so we need tointerpret the real meaning conveyed bythe message in the context. |
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interpretive data analysis includes... |
•Searching for both manifest& latentcontent•Searching for recurrentpatterns, multiple layers of meanings, variations & interconnections •Carefully interpret what it really means inthis context |
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3 types of in vivo codes |
1) Generalterms repeatedly used 2) Wordsinvented by the participants 3) Slangs/words with cultural meanings |
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3 steps of focus coding |
Step 1: Read quotations on the table Step 2: Interpret the meanings to divide into sub-themes Step 3: Compare all sub-themes to explain the major theme |
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What is the goal of focus coding? |
Throughthis process, your data will transform from “descriptive “ to more“analytical /interpretive”. |
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Conceptualization |
- Conceptualization (theorization) moving beyond description to explanation - It involves interpretationof data and making inferencesby shifting yourself into a speculative mode of thinking (e.g. What is happening?, Why?, How?, etc.) |
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Interpretation is..... |
Goingbeyond the descriptive data to: •attachsignificance to what was found •offerexplanations •drawconclusions •extrapolatelessons•makeinferences |
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Interpretation is beneficial/ successful when it... |
1) Makesthe obvious obvious (confirmwhat we know) 2) Makesthe obvious dubious (question‘facts’ / highlights misconceptions) |
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Areas of interpretation |
1) Whichthing(s) appear to lead to other thing(s)? 2)Which aspect(s)of thing(s) produce certain effects? 3)How & why processes that lead to outcomes |
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Steps of conceptualization |
Step 1: Compare all of you major theme tables Step 2: Select key themes & sub-themes Step 3: Link them in a meaningful way |
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Importance of negative case analysis |
•Consideringtheinstances & theme that do not fit within the pattern (=deviant themes)increases our understanding of the general pattern. •Negativecases provide critical information & new insights although they are not large enough to getin a common patterns. |
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Tree Diagrams |
Creates a visual representation of the relationship between - categories, main themes, and sub themes - You can see the number of factors influencing the phenomenon |
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Concept Charting |
Helpsto visualize and comprehend: •the relationsamong main themes. •the degree of influence ofeach theme by the size of circles. •the distance among each theme bythe location of circles. |
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Flow charting |
•Helps visualize & understand theorder of elements throughtime or process rather than as a static structure. |
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Modeling |
- enables you to show the relationshipsbetween themes. - diagramsare easily exported into other documents |
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Conditional Matrix |
•Sometimes a “matrix”helps you to describethe patternsby providing examples. |
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Multi level typology |
•Classifythe categories into certain types at multi levels (e.g. micro-, meso-, macro- levels) |
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What kinds of audiences may you be writing for? |
•participants (or members of the site) •scientific community (academic) •general public •practitioners •policy makers •funders |
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Contents & style of qualitative report |
1) Contents: Overall structure •Introduction/ review of the literature•Procedure/ methods & analysis•Findings(= results)•Discussion(whatgoes in here?) 2) Writing style: •clear,engaging - aim for a level of detail that makes the work come alive.•“up-close”/ personal – thick description•highlyreadable•appliedfor a broad audience•usemetaphors |
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Short eye-catching quotation |
need spaces before & afterthe quote |
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Embedded quotes |
Briefly quoted phrases within analysts narrative |
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Longer quotation |
(block quotation) - to convey morecomplex understandings, but readers need to be guided both “into” the quote and “out of” the quote |
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Researchers Presence |
Howmuch of the researcheris present in the report / narrative? --> reflexivitySomestrategies •Disclosure by the author of his/herbiases, values, and context that may have shaped the narrative. (often inresearch context in introduction)•Establish a separate section (e.g.epilogue, reflective foot-notes, role of researcher) |
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Link your findings to the literature |
Discussthe similarities& differences betweenyour findings & existing theories. |
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validation- Evaluating qualitative research |
•Howdo we know that the qualitative study is believable and accurate? •Howdo we know if the researchers conducted a rigorous and trustworthy study? |
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Reliability in quantitative |
•“Towhat extent can the results be replicated?” (i.e., are generalizable) •“Ifthe study is repeated, will it yield the same results?” (single reality) |
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Reliability in Qualitative |
•“Doresults make sense given the data collected? (i.e.,not seeking generalizability)•“Arethe results consistent with the data collected?” |
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Credibility |
Arethe findings and interpretation credible or believable, capture the nature ofthe phenomenon? (= internal validity in QNT) |
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Transferability |
Canthe findings be transferred to other settings because of shared characteristics? (=externalvalidity) |
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Dependability (= consistency) |
Arethe data & interpretations of the study reliable, dependable, andconsistent with the data? (=reliability) |
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Confirmability |
Arethe findings & interpretations of the study grounded in data rather thanthe researcher’s personal constructions? (=objectivity) |
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Post Positivism |
- A theory cannot be proven but a strong case can be made for it by proving an alternate explanations O- believe that A reality exists but cannot be accurately detected E- objectivity is valued, but they don't believe that it is possible to maintain absolute distance from the researched M- findings are based on pre- existing knowledge and critique |
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Critical Theory |
- closer to relativism O- founded on historical realism which essentially proposes that what is seen as real has been shaped by social, political, cultural E- Based on interactions of the researcher and the researched and subjectivity. The values of a researcher are considered an influence on the findings M- Based on dialog that discovers findings through exchanging logical arguments |
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Constructivism |
- individuals or group construct meaning or reality from interactions with a social environment O- We do not find reality, we construct it - realities are co-constructed E- considers researchers and participants as co-creators of the findings M- based on interactions between and among the researcher and participant - qualitative methods like in-depth interview are used and context is well described |
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Post-Modernism |
- represents a range of view points - movement away from traditional schools of thought - impossible to define |
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Positivism |
- Searches for the truth or facts about reality O- a reality exists and it can be measured by objectivity E- objective in nature, the researcher cannot interact in the study at all M- experimental and manipulative in nature where hypothesis are tested and quantitative methods are viewed as superior |
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Critical Realism |
-A realist ontology with a realist epistemology - Believe that a reality exists but does not depend on our perception of it |
