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150 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is public health?
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Policies, programs and services that are designed to keep people healthy and improve their quality of life. Focus on the general health of a population rather than individuals.
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What is Engel's 'black lung' example?
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This example made a strong case for the link between disease and poor living/working conditions (as an outcome of capitalist exploitation). He explained that this illness did not occur in mines that were properly ventilated but rather in the mines that had poor working conditions. He blamed this on the owners being unwilling to pay for ventilation, ultimately exploiting their workers and not caring for their well-being.
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Class
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A position in a system of structured inequality based on the unequal distribution of power, wealth, income & education. Those who share class generally share the same lifestyles.
Example: The difference between the labourers and professionals. Labourers are exposed to poor working environments that compromise their health whereas the professionals, or the owners, are not facing these hardships and ultimately have better quality of health. |
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Epidemiology
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The statistical study of patters of disease in populations.
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State
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A collection of institutions (Government, judiciary, military, etc)
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What are social determinants of health?
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Living conditions that affect people's health. Such as housing, job security, gender, income, education and social class.
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Specific Etiology
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The idea that there is a specific cause for each specific disease.
Note: This model of disease eventually grew and came to be known as the biomedical model. |
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What is the biomedical model of health?
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A traditional approach to medicine based on the diagnosis and explanation of illness as a malfunction of the body's biological mechanisms (parts & processes)
Based on the concept of specific etiology. Focuses on treating individuals and ignores any social/mental/emotional contexts of the illness. |
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What does the biomedical model focus on?
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1. Focuses mainly on biology and the biological explanations for health and illness
2. Health/illness is typically thought of as something that is only physically situated within the body 3. Diagnosed by a bunch of different medical tests and ultimately treated with medical intervention techniques 4. Doesn't take any sociological, psychological, cultural, environmental factors into account. Illness is only physically experienced 5. Looks at the body and all its parts, if something is malfunctioning, it can be treated. As simple as that. |
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What are the 5 defining characteristics of the biomedical model?
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1. Cartesian Mind/Body dualism
2. Machine metaphor 3. Technological imperative 4. Physical reductionism 5. Doctrine of specific etiology |
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Cartesian Mind/Body Dualism
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The notion that the mind and body are separate entities. While the brain is physical the mind is spiritual. Disease is physical whereas the mind may experience psychological and subject aspects of the illness.
In regards to the biomedical model: Technology enables practitioners to do many tests without the consent of individuals, the mental state (mind) is considered unimportant and most treatments only focus on the body & its malfunctioning part. |
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Machine Metaphor
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The body is viewed as a machine made up of specific parts. Health practitioners work to "repair" any broken parts (doctor plays the role of a mechanic). In order to treat these different areas the body is broken down into specific parts, thus we need specialists to treat different areas.
Key: Disease/illness has become about breakdown |
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Technological Imperative
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Treatment is usually through pharmaceutical (drug) and surgical methods. More emphasis on the curative/corrective aspect of medicine rather than on one's lifestyle, for example.
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Physical Reductionism
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All symptoms are reduced to physical workings of the body. No attention to any social, psychological and environmental factors.
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Doctrine of Specific Etiology
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Disease is assumed to be linked to some specific cause or origin. This leads to the want for a "quick fix" as a method of treatment (surgery, drugs, etc) to restore the body to health.
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According to the biomedical model, how is disease to be cured?
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1. Surgery, pharmaceuticals and other medical interventions
2. Behaviour changes (eat healthy, don't smoke, etc) 3. Health education and immunization (prevention) |
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What are the 4 criticisms of the biomedical model of health?
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1. The fallacy of specific etiology
2. Objectification and medical scientism 3. Reductionism and biological determinism 4. Victim blaming |
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The Fallacy of Specific Etiology
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The idea of "specific cause for a specific disease" only applies to a limited range of diseases. Disease causation is much more complex than this model makes it out to be. For example, diseased states may be the outcome of circumstances rather than one determinant factor (germ, bacteria, etc)
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Objectification and Medical Scientism
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Looking at the human body as a machine & its parts can lead to objectification of a patient who is ill. Since this model only views disease/illness in physical terms, treating "it" (the 'broken' part) becomes the major concern and the patient is objectified as a 'case' as a result. This is where the idea of doctors poor interpersonal skills comes into play.
Patients thoughts, feelings and subjective experiences in regards to illness are mostly dismissed because they are 'unscientific' (medical scientism) |
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Reductionism and Biological Determinism
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Due to the mechanical conception of the body, reductionism has lead medicine to focus on smaller and smaller features in oder to find cause and cure of disease. By further reducing the focus of diseases to biological, cell, genetic levels it further takes away from sociological and psychological aspects. An outcome of this is increased medical specialities.
Leads to biological determinism, assumption that people's biology causes or determines their inferior social, economic and health status. Supports most elitist, racist and sexist beliefs. Implication is that little can be done about these predetermined inequalities. |
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Victim Blaming
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Locates the cause and cure of disease as solely within the individual. Social inequality can be explained in these terms because they are solely responsible for what happens to them in relation to what choices they make and their assumed psychological, cultural and biological inferiority.
Example: Your poor health is the result of bad genes. Or, it is an outcome of your poor lifestyle choices which you can control. |
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Lifestyle choices/factors
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The decisions that people make that are likely to impact their life. Implies that people are ultimately responsible for making these choices.
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What is the social definition of health?
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- Focuses more on the social patterns and societal explanations for health and illness.
- Not only biological determined - Idea that health/illness can be socially experienced as well - The idea that biomedical and sociological aspects should work together and coexist |
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What are some social patterns of illness?
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1. Income is related to health (poor individuals have lower life expectancy rates and poor healthy quality)
2. Accessibility to different resources (food, health care, money to purchase health care) 3. Improved social conditions (no poverty, clean water, etc) will improve overall health quality |
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Risk factors
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Conditions that are thought to increase an individuals susceptibility to illness and disease
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Health promotion
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A goal of health policy in Canada. Any combination of education and relation organizational, political and economic interventions that are designed to advocate for behavioural and environmental changes to result in good health.
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What is the biopsychosocial model of health?
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Extension of the biomedical model, it is multifactorial in that it takes into account the biological, psychological and social factors implicated in a patients condition. Focuses on the patient for diagnosis, explanation and treatment.
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What is the ecological model?
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Suggests that an understanding of health determinants must consider the interaction of social, economic, geographic and environmental factors
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Social Model of Health
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Focuses on the social determinants of health (people's living conditions, for example) and highlights the social determinants of illness. Directs attention to prevention of illness through community and social reforms that address living and working conditions.
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What are the 3 defining characteristics of the Social Model of Health?
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1. Social production/distribution of health and illness
2. Social construction of health and illness 3. Social organization of health care |
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Gender
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Socially constructed categories of feminine and masculine as opposed to categories of biological sex (male and female)
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Ethnicity
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Refers to a shared cultural background which is characteristic of all groups in society.
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Race
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Skin color and facial features used to identify a certain group, a biologically distinct group of humans
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Social Production/Distribution of Health and Illness
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Highlights that many illness that people suffer from are socially produced and an outcome of peoples material and living conditions. Unequal distribution of income and wealth in society is particularly important here. So is education, food & quality of early life.
Example: Unhealthy/unsafe workplaces are beyond an individuals control and therefore need to be addressed at a societal level |
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Social Construction of Health and Illness
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Refers to how definitions of health and illness can vary among cultures as well as change over time. What is considered a disease in one culture at a certain time may be considered normal and healthy for another culture at another time.
Example: Homosexuality was once thought to be a disease. It is no longer medically defined this way. Thus, cultural beliefs, social practices and social institutions all shape how health and illness are understood and experienced. |
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Social Organization of Health Care
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Concerning the way a particular society organizes, funds and utilizes its health services. Unequal relationships between health care professionals (i.e. doctors have a ton of power whereas nurses do not)
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Social construction
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Socially created characteristics of human life based on the idea that people actively construct reality
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Social structure
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The recurring patters of social interaction through which people are related to each other.
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Social institutions
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Formal structures within society (health care, government, education, media, etc)
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Agency
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The ability of people (individually and collectively) to influence their own lives and the society in which they live
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How do you cure illness/disease according to the Social Model of Health?
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1. Public policy
2. State intervention to alleviate health and social inequalities (find ways to solve problems) 3. Community participation, advocacy and political lobbying |
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What are the criticisms of the Social Model of Health?
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1. Attaining equality is very idealistic and unachievable
2. An over-emphasis on medicine is harmful 3. Solutions to many societal problems can be complex, costly and thus difficult to implement 4. Under-emphasis on individual responsibility for health lets people off the hook completely |
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Structure-Agency Debate
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A debate over the extent to which human behaviour is determined by social structure. To what extent are we products of society? How much influence do we have over our own lives?
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Sociological Imagination
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Sociological approach to analyzing issues. How we see the word through this imagination or think sociologically when we make links between personal troubles and public issues.
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What separates different theories from each other?
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1. Their position on the structure-agency debate
2. The questions that they ask 3. Their conceptualizations of society 4. Their ultimate goal |
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What is theory?
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An explanation of how things work and why things happen. Help us make sense of our world.
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Structural Functionalism
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Studies the way social structures function to maintain social order and stability. Views society as a system of integrated parts that each have certain needs that must be fulfilled in order to maintain social order. Promotion of social stability.
Example: Human body composed of many different parts. They all have certain needs that need to be fulfilled in order for the entire body to function and remain stable. |
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What are the 4 key assumptions of Structural Functionalism?
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1. Society is made up of interrelated parts
2. Each part has a function and works to sustain stability/unity of the whole 3. Cohesion and stability are maintained by sharing of central values 4. Each person fulfills a particular role (which has certain rights and responsibilities) |
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What are the critiques of Structural Functionalism?
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1. Does not account for social change
2. Does not account for conflict 3. Does not account for social inequality All of these things would technically disrupt the idealistic state of stability and therefore can be a little unrealistic as these things surely exist in our lives. |
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What are the 4 characteristics of Social Systems?
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1. Boundaries
2. Interdependence of parts 3. Needs or requirements 4. Equilibrium |
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Functional parts
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The parts that help meet the needs of the system and maintain stability
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Dysfunctional parts
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Parts that are harmful to the system
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Nonfunctional parts
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Parts that are irrelevant to the system
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Sick Role
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Health is considered essential for society to maintain stability and equilibrium. Therefore, if someone gets sick they have certain rights and responsibilities. They have the right to refrain from their regular duties and roles. But they have the responsibility to seek medical attention so that they can get better
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What are critiques of the sick role?
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It doesn't do well in cases where people are suffering from chronic, terminal or permanently disabling conditions.
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What are some new applications of the sick role in society?
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Nowadays if you are in the sick role you are expected to use as few medical resources as possible so as to manage cost. Also, health is much more active rather than passive therefore there is an emphasis on prevention and working to avoid getting sick
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What are the general trends of suicide?
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- Protestant countries higher than Catholic
- Jewish societies have the lowest rate of suicide - Unmarried/divorced higher than married - Those without children higher than those with children - Economic turmoil/political upheaval increase suicide rates |
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What are the explanations for suicide?
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It results from lack of integration into society, the failure to share beliefs/values and have a consensus. It also results from the lack of social control and regulation.
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Egoistic Suicide
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Individuals are not as integrated into society. Not as much community/society union.
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Anomic Suicide
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When society fails to regulate an individual. There is not "normlessness"
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What is Marxism or Conflict Theory?
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The idea that society is dominated by conflict of interest between two social classes (upper class and working class)
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What is the role of a health care professional in conflict theory?
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To discipline and control the working and provide explanations for individualized explanations of disease. Doctors in general have a lot of power.
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What are the 4 key assumptions of Marxism?
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1. Societies are always changing
2. Conflict and dissensus are always present in every social system 3. There are parts of every system that contribute to change 4. Coercion is always present in society (some people always have more power than others) |
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Internal Conflict
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Conflict that occurs within a group
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External Conflict
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Conflict that occurs outside a group (between groups)
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What is the key concept of Marxism?
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Social Stratification
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Social Stratification
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It is also known as social inequality. Different social classes/groups have different access and control of resources.
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What is a key difference between Structural functionalism and Marxism?
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Structural functionalism focuses on equilibrium and Marxism focuses on inequality.
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What was health care like under the BNA act of 1867?
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Each province was responsible for their own health care system, not universal
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What are the consequences of not having universal health care insurance?
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1. People paid hospitals and doctors directly
2. Poor, elderly and chronically ill could often not afford the care they needed 3. Major illness could turn even rich people to poverty |
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What were the implications of the Canada Medical Act in 1912?
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Thomas Riddick passed legislation that affected medical licensing (only one uniform way of getting a license). This limited amount of doctors which increases demand and cost.
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How did the Great Depression affect health care in Canada?
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- Lack of good housing and nutrition
- Lots of poverty and suffering - Lots of infectious disease - People could not afford to pay doctors bills |
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What was health policy like in the 1930's?
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- Patullo Govt. in BC passed health insurance legislation act but it was never implemented because doctors/conservative party opposed it.
- United Farmers of Alberta passed health insurance legislation. But then the social credit came to power and it wasn't implemented. - Overall trend at this time was the passing of these health insurance legislations but they never actually got implemented - At the fed. level, Bennet introduced the "New Deal" legislation which included health insurance (getting closer and closer) - But then Mackenzie came into power and declared in unconstitutional because it violated the whole idea of provinces taking care of themselves |
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What was healthy policy like in the 1940's?
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- Federal government introduced a draft for universal health care (wanted to address inadequate access to medical/hospital care, war time recruiting of soldiers, Canadians health status was generally poor)
- This legislation was to be cost shared by provincial and federal governments. It was believed that greater access would improve the overall health - BUT, it got vetoed. Because...Provinces were afraid of letting federal government have too much control. They also could not agree on taxation. |
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Who is Tommy Douglas?
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"Father of Universal Health Care"
He was from Sask but moved to Winnipeg. He had a bone infection when he was young but he was unable to afford the cost of surgery and treatments. The surgeon ended up performing his surgery for free. This life-changing health experience was what propelled his want to help other people avoid this unfortunate situation. This was why he wanted universal health care...So became the premier of Saskatchewan and introduced hospital insurance. He: - Increased the number of health care facilities - Granted universal access to hospital care - Encouraged doctors and patients to think of hospital care as a first resort |
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What did the National Health Grants do?
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Federal money got transferred to the provinces for:
1. Hospital infrastructure 2. Research and training 3. Tuberculosis and cancer control 4. Provincial health surveys |
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What did the Hospital and Diagnostic Services Act do?
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People were struggling to pay for health care so federal government covered half the costs of specific hospital services
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What did the Medical Care Services Act do?
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50:50 cost sharing
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What did the New Financing Act do?
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- Cost sharing changed (75% provinces, 25% federal)
- New emphasis on community care - Federal taxes lowered and provincial taxes raised |
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What is the date of the Canada Health Act?
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1984
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What did the Canada Health Act do?
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Federal government will continue to transfer payments to the provinces as long as health insurance programs meet criteria:
1. Universal 2. Comprehensive 3. Accessible 4. Portable 5. Publicly administered |
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Universal?
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All citizens are covered. If you're not a citizen you are not covered and have to pay for it.
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Comprehensive?
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All conventional hospital and medical care. Nothing outside the regular boundaries such as counselling or physiotherapy
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Accessible?
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No limits on services and no additional costs for patients.
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Portable?
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Each province must recognize the others coverage
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Publicly administered?
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Under the control of a public, non profit organization (funded by tax dollars)
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Why is the Canada Health Act important?
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- Made health care more equitable
- Tommy Douglas' dream of access and help was achieved - No one is denied health care because they cannot afford to pay - Extra billing and user fees are prohibited - But does not cover all health expenses |
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In regards to health care today, 2013, what is happening?
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- Shortage of nurses and doctors (particularly nurses)
- Long waiting times for treatment - Overcrowded emergency rooms - Some people can't afford basic medications that are not covered - Many regional differences in regards to health care access - Insufficient coverage and care for 'mental issues' - Continued battles between provincial and federal governments over funding - 70% of funding comes from public funds (gov) - 30% comes from private out of pocket (employee benefits/private insurance) |
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What is the Canadian perception of health care?
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- 87% of Canadians said that changing public health care would change the nature of Canada
- Majority say it is not sustainable - Most say that they are happy with the health care they receive - 40% say that they should be able to pay out of pocket to receive care sooner - More people in Canada are starting to consider private health care |
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How does Public Health Care work?
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It is very universal and available to everyone on equal footing and it is funded by taxes. Doctors are paid by medicare and can't offer private services unless they opt out of it. Private insurance and benefit plans can get the services that are not covered. Insured people can purchase the uninsured services.
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What are the arguments for public health care?
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- Private health car wil end up leaving the poor/less fortunate people without care.
- Unconstitutional because it doesn't follow the Canada Health Act of 1984 - More focus on profit will lead to poor care quality - May lead to a shortage of doctors and increased waiting times |
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What are the arguments for private health care?
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- Individuals should have the right to pay for the services that they want when the wait times are unreasonable
- If you have the money you should be able to pay. Leaving public health care for those who cannot afford to pay - Need to modernize the health care act and fix the problems such as extensive waiting times - Increasing funding won't help especially with all the costs for technology, etc. |
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What is Weberianism?
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Influenced by the ideas of Marx...also perceived society to be socially stratified (with inequality leading to conflict) but he agreed with Marx on the nature of social stratification.
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How does Weber see Social Stratification?
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Through 3 interrelated parts:
1. Property (economic resources) 2. Power (political resources) 3. Prestige or status (social resources) |
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What were Weber's 3 social classes?
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Working, middle and upper
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What are status groups?
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Membership in professional/other social groups, shared specific/unique qualities and skills, social respect and various privileges
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What are the status groups in health care?
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Doctors, nurses, physiotherapists, social workers etc.
They all have different skills and areas of expertise. They also have different levels of prestige (different salaries and working conditions) |
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What is social closure?
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Dominant group safeguards its position/privileges by denying access to outsiders. Certification can be one way to do this (For example, medical license as a doctor)
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What is medical dominance?
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A medical example of social closure. Refers to the idea of medicine being the most prestigious power in the health care system. Gives physicians so much power and control over health care. They are the gatekeepers authorizing access to other health care services.
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Who challenges medical dominance?
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CAM practitioners, kinesiologists, physiotherapists, nurses, etc.
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What are the historical roots of nursing?
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- Religious (nuns and sisters who cared for the poor and sick, i.e. Mother Teresa)
- Military organizations (nurses who cared for wounded soldiers) - It was considered a woman's natural work/calling |
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Who was Florence Nightingale?
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- Founder of modern nursing (opened the first school for nursing in London)
- She was a social reformer, wanted to gain prestige and professionalize - Not quite feminist though because she did believe that nurses should be subservient |
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What is modern nursing like in Canada?
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- Nurses trained to provide service to patients (hands on care) and to physicians (by carrying out their orders)
- UBC had the first degree program for nurses - Increased emphasis on skills and training for nurses - Nurses have began taking over some of the physicians work (setting up IV's, etc) - They then end up passing off other duties to nursing assistants |
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Contemporary Nursing
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Nursing has become specialized and hierarchically organized. There are many different kinds of nurses, types/levels of training, different levels of responsibility.
Today, nurses comprise 54% of total health care professionals. Most work in hospitals. Mainly women. Nursing population is aging and the current shortage of nurses is presumed to get worse. |
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Weberianism and Nursing?
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More emphasis on what nursing is about and why it is difficult. Weber focuses on working conditions and the nature of the work. Understanding what it means to work as a nurse.
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Weber & The Nature of Social Life?
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Pre-industrial society: Characterized by irrationality (things like religion, magic, supernatural) as basis for explaining social world/authority
- Big emphasis on emotions, insight, revelations Now...in Modern Society: Characterized by rationality (belief in science, efficiency) as basis for explanations - Emphasis on reason, logic, intellect |
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What is rationalization?
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Acceptance of rules, efficiency, and practical affairs as the way to approach human affairs
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What are the strengths of rationalization?
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- Efficiency (best practices in health care)
- Clear/better use of resources - Outcomes are more predictable and organized |
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What are the problems with rationalization?
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1. The 'iron cage'
2. McDonaldization 3. New Managerialism |
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What is the 'iron cage'?
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Rationalization leads to more laws and rules that start to confine all aspects of everyday life. Things start to become confined and constrained, such as creativity, emotion, individuality, spontaneity. Can lead to negative consequences (dehumanization)
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What is McDonaldization?
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Rationalization of modern society leading to our culture having the characteristics of a fast food chain...such as:
- Robot like assembly of food, or health care, in this case - Emphasis on predictability and uniformity - Human touch gets lost |
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What is New Managerialism?
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Nurses are losing autonomy due to the dictation of rationalization strategies in their jobs. There is emphasis on efficiency, accountability, quantification, cost-driven decision making and cutbacks in nurses.
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What are pharmaceuticals?
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Drugs. Essential elements of modern medicine when used appropriately. Can be used to maintain and restore health.
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Why is the pharmaceutical industry important?
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They can save lives! They impact the lives of many individuals health status. But the affordability of medications is becoming a big concern.
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What is the life cycle of a drug?
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1. Conception/Drug discovery
2. Research/Trials 3. Regulatory approval 4. Marketing and promotion 5. Prescription and consumption 6. Post-marketing surveillance |
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Conception/Drug discovery
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The potential product (drug) is identified
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Research/Trials
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Manufacturers test the drug on cells and animals
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Regulatory Approval
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A formal application is sent to Health Canada for approval
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Marketing and Promotion
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If the drug is approved by Health Canada it is then licensed and manufactured and marketed for sale
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Prescription and Consumption
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Doctors start to prescribe the drug and patients begin to use it
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Post-marketing Surveillance
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Manufacturers and Health Canada monitor the drug to see if there are any unintended affects that accompany its use
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Pharmacovigilance
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Underlying the life cycle of a drug. The detection, assessment, understanding and prevention of adverse effects or any other drug related problem.
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What are some examples of pharmacovigilance?
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Rebirth or repacking of a drug (ends up treating other problems) or it is taken off the market (due to some kind of problem)
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What are the critiques of the Pharmaceutical Industry?
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1. Medicalization and Pharmaceuticalization
2. Which drugs are (not) developed and why? 3. Iatrogenesis 4. The marketing of pharmaceuticals |
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Medicalization?
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When non-medical problems become defined and treated as medical issues...usually in terms of illnesses, disorders and syndromes.
Example: Medicalization of small breast size = Small breast syndrom. It is not really a medical problem. |
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Pharmaceuticalization
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When non-problems are defined as problems that need to be treated by pharmaceuticals. Process by which social, behavioural, or bodily conditions are treated or deemed in need of intervention by pharmaceuticals. Giving the pharmaceutical industry a lot of control.
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Which drugs are (not) developed and why?
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- Majority of drug research/development is done in private industry which is profit driven
- Emphasis on developing drugs that can be patented, sold for a high price in relation to production costs - Emphasis on drugs for treating illnesses in richer countries |
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Iatrogenesis
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Any adverse outcome or harm as a result of medical treatment. Scientific dishonesty and pharmaceutical fraud leading to things like biased medical research and drugs that have terrible/tragic side effects. The profit motive and lack of oversight by pharmaceutical companies leads to these consequences.
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The Marketing of Drugs
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The way that drugs are marketed and the money spent on it. US industry almost spends 2x the money on marketing as they do research.
How? Direct advertising to the doctors, advertising in medical journals, conventions for doctors, etc... |
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What is CAM?
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Complementary and Alternative Medicine
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What is conventional medicine?
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Medical practices developed in the 19th and 20th century recognized all over the world. Central to these practices is the hospital where these doctors are taught these skills, lab science, and allopathic biomedicine
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What is biomedicine?
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Conventional approach to medicine in Western societies based off of diagnosing and treating malfunctioning parts (biomedical model)
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What is allopathy?
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A descriptive name given to conventional medicine. The treatment of symptoms by opposites. Treating symptoms individually.
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What is complementary and alternative medicine (CAM)?
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Medical/health care systems, practices, treatments, philosophie that are not apart of the dominant body of medical knowledge
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Complementary medicine
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Used TOGETHER with conventional medicine
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Alternative medicine
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Used in place of conventional medicine
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Integrative medicine
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Combination of mainstream medical therapies and alternative/complementary.
Example: One practitioner may use these different treatments |
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Comprehensive Systems
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Alternative medical systems built on systems of theory and practice. Evolved separate from conventional medicine, earlier too.
Some examples are: - Ayurvedic - Traditional Chinese Medicine - Naturopathy - Homeopathy |
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Spiritual and Mental
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Variety of practices and techniques that are based off the idea that the body and mind are totally connected. May be religious or just personally spiritual.
Examples: - Faith healers - Spiritual healers - Transcendental meditation - Mental imaging |
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Energy Work
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Body has an energy/vitality that can be manipulated. Therefore the flow of energy has to be balanced.
Examples: - Acupuncture - Crystal healing - Reflexology - Reiki - Shiatsu |
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Dietary Therapies
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Based on consumption of natural health products, food, herbs. Often apart of a comprehensive system.
Examples: - Macrobiotics - Herbal remedies - Vitamin therapies |
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Manipulation
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Based on physically moving/adjusting the body.
Examples: - Chiropractic - Craniosacral therapy - Feldenkrais - Tai Chi - Osteopathy |
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Diagnostics
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Techniques to identify symptoms/source of disease
Examples: 1. Applied kinesiology 2. Iridology 3. Psionics |
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Other forms of CAM?
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Whole range of practices/techniques that could be used on their own or as part of a comprehensive system.
Examples: - Cupping - Aromatherapy - Hydrotherapy |
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What are the most popular forms of CAM use?
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Chiropractics, massage, acupuncture, homeopathy/naturopathy
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How many Canadians are using CAM?
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About 20%
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What are some general trends of CAM?
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- Women use more than men do
- When income and education increase so does CAM use - Used higher in Western parts - Particularly high among individuals with chronic or terminal illness - Used highest in adults aged 25-55 |
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Why do people use CAM?
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Chronic conditions, chronic pain or terminal illnesses are frequently cited as the reason for CAM use.
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What are the PUSH factors for CAM?
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- Dissatisfied with biomedicine
- Biomed deemed unaffective - Biomed had too many side effects - Biomed to impersonal, expensive, or too much technology |
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What are the PULL factors for CAM?
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- People get more personal control
- CAM is perceived as more empowering - More compatible with their own personal values and gives them more autonomy - More holistic view of health - More interpersonal |
