Gould's Pathophysiology - Chapter 14 And 15

Front 1

Pairs of cranial nerves

Back 1

12

Front 2

Pairs of spinal nerves

Back 2

31

Front 3

Fatty tissue covering axon

Back 3

Myelin sheath

Front 4

Membranous sheath outside of myelin sheath

Back 4

Neurolemma

Front 5

Communication and control center of the body, response are both involuntary and voluntary actions

Back 5

Brain

Front 6

Protection for the brain, rigid bone; also the meninges and the CSF fluid

Back 6

Skull

Front 7

Composition: Dura mater, Subdural space, Arachnoid, Subarachnoid space, Arachnoid villi, Pia mater

Back 7

Meninges

Front 8

Provides a cushion for the brain and the spinal cord

Back 8

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Front 9

Protective mechanism, limits the passage of potentially damaging materials into the brain and controls the delicate but essential balance of electrolytes, glucose, and proteins in the brain

Back 9

Blood-brain barrier and blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier

Front 10

Make up the largest portions of the brain. Outer surface is covered by gyri or sulci. Each hemisphere has 4 major lobes. Right hemisphere and left hemisphere are similar in structure but not function.

Back 10

Cerebral Hemispheres

Front 11

Frontal lobe, Parietal lobe, Occipital lobe, Temporal lobe, Cerebellum, Medulla oblongata, Hypothalamus, Thalamus, Basal nuclei, Reticular activating system, Limbic system

Back 11

Major functional areas of the brain

Front 12

Central portion of the brain, contains the thalamus, the hypothalamus, and theepithalamus

Back 12

Diencephalon

Front 13

Inferior portion of the brain, is the connecting link to the spinal cord. Contains the reticular formation which is a network of nuclei and neurons

Back 13

Brain stem

Front 14

Located dorsal to the pons and medulla, below the occipital lobe Functions to coordinate movement and maintain posture and equilibrium

Back 14

Cerebellum

Front 15

12 pairs, originate from the brain stem and pass through the foramina in the skull to serve structures in the head and neck

Back 15

Cranial nerves

Front 16

Review table 14-3; Nerve number and name and function

Back 16

Example: Cranial nerve I is olfactory – smell Cranial nerve III is Oculomotor – function is movement of eyes and eyelids

Front 17

31 pairs of nerves emerge from the spinal cord

Back 17

Spinal nerves

Front 18

Grouped as Cranial, Respiration, Sympathetic, and parasympathetic

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Spinal nerves

Front 19

Automatic, rapid, involuntary responses to stimulus

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Reflexes

Front 20

Also termed nerve cells, highly specialized, nonmitotic cells that conductimpulses throughout the CNS

Back 20

Neurons

Front 21

Found in body, some examples Ach, Norepinephrine, epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, histamine

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Neurotransmitters

Front 22

Incorporates the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. Provides motor and sensory innervation to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands

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Autonomic Nervous System (ANS

Front 23

Increases the general activity level in the body increasing CV, respiratory, and neurologic functions.

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Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) or thoracolumbar nervous system

Front 24

Necessary for stress response.

Back 24

SNS

Front 25

Dominates the digestive system and aids in the recovery of the body after sympathetic activity.

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Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS) or carniosacral nervous system

Front 26

Signs related to the specific area of the brain or spinal cord in whicha lesion is located

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Local Effects

Front 27

Occur in the cerebral hemispheres above the tentoriumcerebelli

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Supratentorial Lesions

Front 28

Located in the brain stem or below the tentorium

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Infratentorial lesion

Front 29

Damage can present as loss of logical thinking, analytical skills, and/or communication skills.

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Left Hemisphere of brain

Front 30

Damage can present as impaired appreciation of music/art and behavioral problems

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Right Hemisphere of brain

Front 31

Glasgow Coma Scale – figure 14-5 Used in medical assessment

Back 31

Level of Consciousness

Front 32

Refers to a condition in which an individual with brain damage is aware and capable of thinking but is unable to communicate and/or move.

Back 32

Locked-in syndrome

Front 33

Contralateral effect is determined by crossover of thecorticospinal tracts in the medulla

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Motor dysfunction

Front 34

Specific site of damage determines the deficit

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Sensory Deficits

Front 35

Loss of the visual field depends on the site of damage in the visual pathway

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Visual loss

Front 36

Aphasia refers to an inability to comprehend or to express language

Back 36

Language Disorders

Front 37

Expressive, receptive, and global

Back 37

Main types of aphasia

Front 38

Results from sudden, explosive, disorderly discharge of cerebralneurons and is characterized by a sudden, transient alteration in brain function withmotor, sensory, autonomic & psychic clinical manifestations often including the jerkyconvulsions so well characterized in the movies

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Grand mal seizure

Front 39

Often with only jerky move of only a part of thebody. Sometimes no movement occurs but only an altered state of consciousnessprevails for a few minutes.

Back 39

Partial seizure

Front 40

Seizures that recur spontaneously without evidence of areversible metabolic cause.

Back 40

Epilepsy

Front 41

Focal in origin; they affect only onepart of the brain.

Back 41

Partial seizures

Front 42

Non-focal in origin and may affect the entire brain.

Back 42

Generalized seizures

Front 43

Seizures that don't stop spontaneously or occur in succession without recovery. These can be especially lethal.

Back 43

Status epilepticus

Front 44

Signs – severe headache, vomiting, papilledema, pupil being fixed and dilated,ptosis

Back 44

Increased Intracranial Pressure (ICP)

Front 45

Increase ICP because of space constraints within the skull

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Brain Tumors

Front 46

Largest category of primary malignanttumors

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Gliomas

Front 47

Pathophysiology – do not usually have well-defined margins but are invasive and have irregular projections into adjacent tissue

Back 47

Primary malignant brain tumors

Front 48

Major cause of death in theelderly

Back 48

Cerebrovascular Accidents (CVA’s or strokes)

Front 49

Often a person about to have a CVA will havepremonitory symptoms of momentary neurological deficits.

Back 49

Transient ischemicattack (TIA)

Front 50

Pathophysiology – infarction of brain tissue that results from lack of blood.

Back 50

CVA

Front 51

Three common categories – occlusion of an artery by an atheroma, a sudden obstruction caused by an embolus lodging in a cerebral artery, intracerebral hemorrhage, usually caused by rupture of a cerebral artery.

Back 51

y.

Front 52

Signs/symptoms: Intermittent short episodes of impaired function, numbness, paresthesia, aphasia,confusion.

Back 52

TIA

Front 53

Epidural, subdural, subarachnoid, intracerebralhematoma

Back 53

Types of hematomas/hemorrhages

Front 54

Hydrocephalus, spina bifida, and cerebral palsy

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Congenital neurological disorders

Front 55

Communicating and noncommunicating

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Two types of Hydrocephalus

Front 56

Group of neural tube defects, 3 common types

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Spina Bifida –spina bifida occulta, meningocele, myelomeningocele

Front 57

Group of disorders marked by some degree of motor impairment

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Cerebral Palsy

Front 58

Condition that results in the coverings of nerves (like the insulation on wires andcalled myelin) eroding away resulting in damage to underlying structures.

Back 58

Demyelination Disorders

Front 59

Chronic and episodic demyelination disorder

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Multiple Sclerosis.

Front 60

Acute, one-time illnessesdemyelination disorderlike where a motor nerve paralysis begins in the lowerextremities and then works its way up the body

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Guillian-Barre Syndrome

Front 61

Degeneration of specific basal ganglia of the brain (the substantia nigra of the mid-brain) resulting inthe depletion of dopamine

Back 61

Parkinson’s disease

Front 62

Vascular dementia, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, and AIDS dementia, ALS (Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis),Myasthenia Gravis, Huntington Disease.

Back 62

Other forms of degenerative disorders

Front 63

Schizophrenia, Depression, and Panic Disorder

Back 63

Mental disorders

Front 64

Myopia, hyperopia, presbyopia, astigmatism, strabismus,nystagmus, and diplopia.

Back 64

Eye structural defects

Front 65

Conjunctivitis, trachoma, keratitis

Back 65

Eye infections

Front 66

Results from increased intraocular pressure (IOP).

Back 66

Glaucom

Front 67

Chronic condition of the eyeball caused by increased pressure within the eyeball resulting in progressive damage to its structures and vision

Back 67

Glaucoma

Front 68

Broadlyclassified as narrow angle (angle-closure) and wide-angle (open-angle)

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Glaucoma

Front 69

Acute problem when the retina tears away from the underlyingchoroid.

Back 69

Detached retina

Front 70

Opacity or clouding of the crystalline lens of the eye or its surroundingmembrane.

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Cataract

Front 71

Extra-capsular cataract extraction (ECCE)or Intra-capsular cataract extraction (ICCE).

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Cataract surgery

Front 72

Most common type of cataract surgery

Back 72

ECCE, which is extraction of lens with posterior capsule remaining in place

Front 73

ICCE

Back 73

Extraction of the lens with its anterior and posterior capsule in place

Front 74

Light-sensing cells of the maculastop functioning causing the symptom of reduced or lost retinal cells in thefovea centralis (the center of the visual field) and retention of peripheral vision.

Back 74

Macular Degeneration

Front 75

Dry and wet

Back 75

Two types of macular degeneration

Front 76

Yellowishspots of fatty deposits termed drusen, which appear on the macula; thisresults when the vascular and support cells of the retina atrophy.

Back 76

Dry form of macular degeneration

Front 77

Leakage into the retina from newly formed blood vessels in the choroid, located behind the retina.

Back 77

Wet form of macular degeneration

Front 78

Wet MD - in which blood vessels of the choroid proliferate is called

Back 78

Choroidal neovascularization

Front 79

Technique used by ophthalmologists to control theleakage of the blood vessels.

Back 79

Laser photocoagulation

Front 80

Use electrical impulses to stimulate auditory nerve fibers with thegoal to improve hearing loss.

Back 80

Cochlear Implants

Front 81

Ear Infections – inflammation or infection of the middle ear cavity

Back 81

Otitis Media

Front 82

Ear Infections - swimmer’s ear, an infection of the external auditory canal and pinna.

Back 82

Otitis Externa

Front 83

Chronic disorders of ear - imbalance in bone formation and resorption

Back 83

Otosclerosis

Front 84

Chronic disorders of ear - inner ear or labyrinth disorders

Back 84

Meniere’s syndrome

Front 85

Meninges - Outer layer (closest to the bone)

Back 85

Dura mater

Front 86

Meninges - Below dura mater

Back 86

Subdural space

Front 87

Meninges - Middle layer

Back 87

Arachnoid

Front 88

Meninges - Contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Back 88

Subarachnoid space

Front 89

Meninges - Adheres to the surface of the brain

Back 89

Pia mater

Front 90

Similar to plasma in appearance, different electrolyte, glucose, protein concentrations

Back 90

Cerebrospinal Fluid

Front 91

Formed constantly by choroid plexuses of the ventricles

Back 91

Cerebrospinal Fluid

Front 92

Flows though ventricles into subarachnoid space

Back 92

Cerebrospinal Fluid

Front 93

Equal amounts need to be produced and reabsorbed to maintain intracranial pressure (ICP).

Back 93

Cerebrospinal Fluid

Front 94

Located at the choroid plexus, controls constituents of CSF

Back 94

Blood-CSF barrier

Front 95

At capillaries in the brain, Limits passage of materials into the brain

Back 95

Blood-brain barrier

Front 96

Controls balance of electrolytes, glucose, and proteins in the brain, Lipid-soluble substances can easily pass, Poorly developed in neonates

Back 96

Blood-brain barrier

Front 97

In brain - nerve cell bodies

Back 97

Cortex “Gray matter”

Front 98

In brain - myelinated nerve bundles (tracts)

Back 98

Corpus callosum “White matter” (connects the hemispheres)

Front 99

Five major lobes of each hemisphere

Back 99

Prefrontal, frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes

Front 100

Side of brain that controls language, Left hemisphere in most people

Back 100

Dominant hemisphere

Front 101

Motor or expressive speech area

Back 101

Broca’s area

Front 102

Integration center, Comprehends language received

Back 102

Wernicke’s area

Front 103

Venous blood from brain collects here, drains into the right and left internal jugular veins

Back 103

Dural sinuses

Front 104

May contain: Motor fibers only, Sensory fibers only, Both motor and sensory fibers (mixed nerve)

Back 104

Cranial nerves

Front 105

Continuous with medulla oblongata

Back 105

Spinal cord

Front 106

Ends at lower border of the first lumbar vertebra, as bundle of nerve roots—cauda equina

Back 106

Spinal cord

Front 107

Gray matter - Anterior horns

Back 107

Cell bodies of motor neurons

Front 108

Gray matter - Posterior horns

Back 108

Interneurons (association neurons)

Front 109

Gray matter - Lateral horns

Back 109

Visceral motor neurons

Front 110

Spinal nerves - Ventral (anterior) root

Back 110

Motor (efferent) fibers

Front 111

Spinal nerves - Dorsal (posterior) root

Back 111

Sensory (afferent) fibers

Front 112

Require glucose and oxygen for metabolism

Back 112

Neurons

Front 113

In the PNS, myelin sheaths

Back 113

Formed by Schwann cells

Front 114

In the CNS, myelin sheaths

Back 114

Formed by oligodendrocyte

Front 115

Glial cells (neuroglia)—supportive cells: Contribute to the blood-brain barrier

Back 115

Astroglia

Front 116

Glial cells (neuroglia)—supportive cells: Provides myelin for axons in the CNS

Back 116

Oligodendroglia

Front 117

Glial cells (neuroglia)—supportive cells: Phagocytotic

Back 117

Microglia

Front 118

Glial cells (neuroglia)—supportive cells - Line brain ventricles and neural tube cavityForm part of the choroid plexus

Back 118

Ependymal cells

Front 119

Saltatory conduction—rapid conduction

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Myelinated fibers

Front 120

ANS - fibers: In brain or spinal cord

Back 120

Preganglionic

Front 121

ANS - fibers: Outside the CNS

Back 121

Postganglionic fibers

Front 122

ANS Neurotransmitters: Preganglionic

Back 122

acetylcholine

Front 123

ANS Neurotransmitters: Postganglionic

Back 123

norepinephrine

Front 124

PNS Neurotransmitters:

Back 124

Acetylcholine—both presynaptic and postsynaptic

Front 125

PNS Receptors

Back 125

Nicotinic and muscarinic

Front 126

Interference with voluntary movements, Weakness or paralysis on the contralateral side of the body

Back 126

Damage to upper motor neurons

Front 127

Weakness or paralysis on the same side of the body, At and below the level of spinal cord damage

Back 127

Damage to lower motor neurons

Front 128

Decorticate and decerebrate posturing

Back 128

Severe brain damage

Front 129

Vision lost in both eyes if chiasm is totally destroyed

Back 129

Optic chiasm damage

Front 130

Loss of the visual field on side opposite to that of the damage

Back 130

Optic tract or occipital lobe damage

Front 131

Inability to comprehend or express language

Back 131

Aphasia

Front 132

Motor dysfunction affecting muscles used in speech

Back 132

Dysarthria

Front 133

Associated with damage to Wernicke’s area

Back 133

Fluent aphasia

Front 134

Associated with damage to Broca’s area

Back 134

Non-fluent aphasia

Front 135

Caused by increased ICP and swelling of the optic disc

Back 135

Papilledema

Front 136

Infections in children and young adults, commonly caused by

Back 136

Neisseria meningitidis or meningococci

Front 137

Infections in neonates - Most common causative organism

Back 137

Escherichia coli

Front 138

Infections in young children - Most often caused by

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Haemophilus influenzae

Front 139

Infections in older adults - Most often caused by

Back 139

Streptococcus pneumoniae

Front 140

Western equine encephalitis

Back 140

Arboviral infection

Front 141

West Nile fever

Back 141

Caused by a flavivirus

Front 142

Neuroborreliosis

Back 142

Lyme disease

Front 143

Autoantibodies to acetylcholine (ACh) receptors form.

Back 143

Myesthenia gravis

Front 144

Inherited disease, Autosomal dominant gene, Carried on chromosome 4

Back 144

Huntington's disease

Front 145

Progressive atrophy of brain, particularly in basal ganglia (nuclei) and frontal cortex

Back 145

Huntington's disease