Geology 101

Front 1

Regarding the study of geology, what is geology?

Back 1

the science that pursues an understanding of the planet earth. it uses other sciences to do this.

Front 2

what are the two types of geology sciences?

Back 2

historical and physical

Front 3

examines the materials composing Earth and seeks to understand the many processes that operate beneath and upon its surface. It looks at external and internal processes.

Back 3

physical geology

Front 4

seeks to understand the origin of the Earth and its development through time.

Back 4

historical geology

Front 5

An important relationship between people and the natural environment exist. This also brings up issues and problems, such as..

Back 5

Natural hazards, resources, world population growth, and environmental issues.

Front 6

When did the study of geology begin?

Back 6

late 1700's

Front 7

Who was the first real geology textbook author?

Back 7

Hutton

Front 8

Who was the father of Geology and what did he write?

Back 8

Sir. Charles Lyell and he wrote Prinicipals of Geology, a four volume set

Front 9

people who are more concerned with natural disasters

Back 9

catastrophism

Front 10

people who believe the present is the key to the past

Back 10

uniformitarism

Front 11

are geologist able to assign fairly accurate dates to events in Earth's history?

Back 11

yes

Front 12

what are the two types of dating geologist use?

Back 12

relative and radiometric

Front 13

dates are placed in their proper sequence or order without knowing their age in years.

Back 13

Relative Dating

Front 14

why is there an appreciation for geological time?

Back 14

it involves vast times (millions or billions of years). also, because many processes are very gradual.

Front 15

what are the three parts to the nature of scientific inquiry

Back 15

1. scientist assume that the natural world is consistent and predictible.
2. the goal of science is to determine patterns in nature and use the knowledge to make predictions.
3. scientists collect data through observation and measurements.

Front 16

knowing exactily how old something is.

Back 16

radiometeric dating

Front 17

a tenative or untested explanation

Back 17

hypothesis

Front 18

a well tested and widely accepted view that the scientific community agrees best explains certain observable facts

Back 18

theory

Front 19

there is no fixed path that scentist follow that leads to what?

Back 19

scientific knowledge

Front 20

What size is Earth and is it self-contained

Back 20

small, and yes it is

Front 21

What are Earth's four spheres?

Back 21

Hydrosphere, Atmosphere, geosphere (Lithosphere), and Biosphere

Front 22

Because Earth is a system it has

Back 22

interacting parts or spheres.

Front 23

What are two things that Earth Science System tries to do

Back 23

Aims to study Earth as a system composed of numerous interacting parts or subsystems. Employs an interdisciplinary approach to solve global environmental problems.

Front 24

any size group of interacting parts that form a complex whole. can be open or closed.

Back 24

system

Front 25

what type of feedback mechanism maintains the status quo?

Back 25

negative

Front 26

What type of feedback mechanism enhances or drives change?

Back 26

positive

Front 27

Earth's system is powered by

Back 27

The sun, which drives the hydrosphere and atmosphere, and powered by the internal core.

Front 28

most researchers believe the Earth and the other planets formed

Back 28

around the same time

Front 29

What hypothesis do most researchers believe concerning the formation of the earth?

Back 29

Nebular Hypothesis

Front 30

What are the steps to the formation of Earth's layers?

Back 30

1. metals sank to the center
2. Molten rock rose to produce a primitive crust
3. Chemical segragation established the three basic divisions of Earth's interior.
4. Primitive atmosphere evolved from gases in the Earth's interior.

Front 31

from outer to inner what are the Earth's layers defined by composition

Back 31

crust, mantle, core

Front 32

what are the layers defined by physical properties?

Back 32

Lithosphere, Asthenosphere, Mesophere, and Inner and Outer core

Front 33

What does the Earth's surface basically consist of?

Back 33

Oceans and continents

Front 34

what is the most prominent feature of a continent?

Back 34

mountain belts.

Front 35

what part of the continent is composed of sheilds and stable platforms?

Back 35

the stable interior, also known as craton.

Front 36

what are the continental margins of the ocean basins?

Back 36

continental shelf, slope, and rise.

Front 37

what are the deep ocean basins?

Back 37

abyssal plains, oceanic trenches, and seamounts

Front 38

what is the most prominent topographic feature of earth, that is composed of igneous rock that has been fractured and uplifted

Back 38

oceanic ridge system

Front 39

what are the three basic rock types?

Back 39

igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic

Front 40

what type of rock forms from cooling and soldification of magma. examples including granite and basalt

Back 40

igneous

Front 41

what type of rock accumulates in layers of the Earth's surface and are derived from weathering of preexisting rocks. examples inculding sandstone and limestone

Back 41

sedimentary rocks

Front 42

what type of rock forms by changing preexisting rocks. the driving force is heat and pressure. Examples include marble and gneiss

Back 42

metamorphic rocks

Front 43

what is one of Earth's subsystems that include the process by which rocks change. it illustrates the processes by which various processes and paths as the earth's materials change on Earth's surface and inside the earth

Back 43

The Rock Cycle

Front 44

Very old, stable regions composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks

Back 44

Shields

Front 45

________ rocks form when weathered particles are cemented and/or compacted

Back 45

Sedimentary rocks

Front 46

Which erosion agents move sediment from one place to another

Back 46

wind, waves, glaciers, and running water

Front 47

the process or processes by which unconsolidated materials are converted into coherent solid rock, as by compaction or cementation

Back 47

lithification

Front 48

Igneous rocks formed at the surface

Back 48

extrusive rocks

Front 49

Igneous rocks formed below the surface

Back 49

intrusive rocks

Front 50

list all 5 of a mineral descriptions

Back 50

cleavage, hardness, color, streak, and luster

Front 51

list both of a rocks descriptions

Back 51

color and texture

Front 52

three main layers of earth by chemical composition

Back 52

Core, Mantle, and Crust

Front 53

The layers of Earth are based on what two sets of characteristics

Back 53

Physical Properties and Chemical Composition

Front 54

What is the D” layer

Back 54

A partially molten layer above the outer core at the base of the mantle

Front 55

The upper mantle can be divided into the asthenosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and lithosphere based on what physical properties

Back 55

Asthenosphere- solid but mobile

Hydrosphere- liquid

Atmosphere- gas

Lithosphere- solid and rigid

Front 56

the two types of crust of the earth

Back 56

Oceanic and continental

Front 57

What happens to the atmosphere as you move away from Earth’s surface

Back 57

The atmosphere thins

Front 58

A large cloud of space gas and dust condensed and contracted to form a rotating disk with a star formed at the center. Repeated collisions caused bodies to coalesce, leading to the current configuration of our solar system. What is this known as

Back 58

The nebular system

Front 59

The enormous cloud of gas and dust initially condensed due to particle attraction. What force then pulled the cloud into a flat disk shape

Back 59

the inward inward force of gravity

Front 60

a thoroughly tested idea is what

Back 60

a theory

Front 61

an attempt at explaining an occurence based on previous knowledge

Back 61

inference

Front 62

based on what you see

Back 62

observation

Front 63

What is the category name for the largest division of time used on the geologic time scale

Back 63

Eon

Front 64

the breakdown of radioactive isotopes helps us do what

Back 64

accurately date fossils and rocks

Front 65

The Jurassic Period lies in the _____ Era

Back 65

Mesozoic

Front 66

Name the eon in which we currently live

Back 66

Phanerozoic Eon

Front 67

Continental Shelf

Back 67

gently sloping submerged portion of the continental margin, extending from the shoreline to the continental slope (the area of seabed around a large landmass where the sea is relatively shallow compared with the open ocean)

Front 68

What evidence supports that the glaciers on the southern continents were once part of a single, massive ice sheet

Back 68

striations

Front 69

striations

Back 69

scratches or grooves in the bedrock surface caused by the grinding action of a glacier and its load of sediment

Front 70

What occours at margins of lithospheric plates that can be observed

Back 70

faulting, earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain building

Front 71

Geosphere

Back 71

The geosphere is the collective name for the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, and the atmosphere

Front 72

cryosphere

Back 72

Frozen water found on the Earth's surface

Front 73

Oceanic lithosphere contains what

Back 73

oceanic crust and the outermost part of mantle beneath the oceanic crust

Front 74

How is the thickness of the lithosphere going to change as it moves away from a divergent plate boundary

Back 74

Lithosphere will thicken as more mantle is added

Front 75

What is the main material being subducted at an ocean-continent convergent boundary

Back 75

oceanic lithosphere (Oceanic lithosphere is more dense than continental lithosphere, so when the two meet, the one that is denser will be subducted)

Front 76

What is convection

Back 76

a cycle of moving material formed by the rise of less-dense material and the sinking of denser material

Front 77

What accounts for most tectonic plate motion

Back 77

forces at subduction zones

Front 78

What is the relationship between temperature and density

Back 78

In general, warmer materials are less dense, and colder materials are denser

Front 79

Which of the following terms best characterizes upwelling in the asthenosphere

Back 79

diffuse (spread over a wide area)

Front 80

What is a plume

Back 80

a zone of upwelling material originating at the outer core-mantle boundary

Front 81

What features at the surface provide evidence of plumes

Back 81

hot spots

Front 82

How do plates move at divergent plate boundaries

Back 82

plates move apart

Front 83

How do plates move at convergent plate boundaries

Back 83

plates move toward each other

Front 84

How do plates move at transform plate boundaries

Back 84

they slide past one another (Transform boundaries are created through shear stress, which causes the two plates to slide past each other.)

Front 85

In general, where do earthquakes AND volcanic eruptions occur

Back 85

divergent plate boundaries and convergent plate boundaries

Front 86

In general, where do just earthquakes occur

Back 86

transform plate boundaries

Front 87

What forms at divergent plate boundaries

Back 87

new oceanic lithosphere

Front 88

In general, where do volcanoes form in subduction zones

Back 88

on the overriding plate, away form the convergent boundary

Front 89

Why are volcanoes NOT found at transform boundaries

Back 89

Transform boundaries do not cause changes to the pressure, temperature, or composition of the mantle

Front 90

What will eventually form around divergent boundarys

Back 90

an ocean

Front 91

Which type of tectonic boundary is the result of two tectonic plates colliding with each other

Back 91

convergent plate boundaries (Convergent boundaries form as a result of compressional forces pushing two plates together)

Front 92

At a subduction zone where oceanic lithosphere meets continental lithosphere, which would subduct and why

Back 92

The oceanic lithosphere would subduct because it has a higher density

Front 93

Why are volcanic chains associated with convergent boundaries

Back 93

Partial melting occurs due to subduction (Partial melting is triggered by water loss in the plate. This melts mantle material, which rises to the surface.)

Front 94

Plate A has oceanic lithosphere on its leading edge that is 10 million years old. Plate B has oceanic lithosphere on its leading edge that is 200 million years old. Which plate will be subducted if they collide with each other, and why

Back 94

Plate B will subduct because it is older—and therefore colder—and more dense

Front 95

In a collision between two continental plates, can a continental plate subduct

Back 95

no because Continental plates are too buoyant to subduct (Continental lithosphere has a density of 2.7 grams per cubic centimeter, making it unlikely to subduct)

Front 96

Which tectonic boundary results when two tectonic plates pull apart from each other

Back 96

Divergent boundaries (Divergent boundaries form because of tensional stress)

Front 97

Divergent boundaries are not one, smooth ridge of separation. Instead, they are broken into a series of segments, with different segments of fault offset from others. What features allow for the offset of divergent boundaries

Back 97

transform faults (Transform faults account for the lateral offset that is seen along divergent boundaries)

Front 98

Crustal rifting is currently occurring in East Africa. Which of the following features would you expect to find there

Back 98

Normal Faults, Long, wide valley, and Lava flows (All of these physical features are evidence that the landscape is experiencing tensional stress from rifting)

Front 99

What surface feature provides evidence for the location of hot spots

Back 99

volcanoes within tectonic plates

Front 100

When will a hot spot volcano become extinct

Back 100

when the volcano is carried away from the hot spot by the tectonic plate

Front 101

What is the relationship between the crust and the lithosphere

Back 101

All of the crust is contained within a larger layer called the lithosphere

Front 102

What is the relationship between the mantle and the lithosphere

Back 102

Some of the mantle is contained within a smaller layer called the lithosphere.

Front 103

What is the relationship between the mantle and the asthenosphere

Back 103

All of the asthenosphere is contained within a larger layer called the mantle

Front 104

Which part of the Earth is responsible for generating the planet’s magnetic field

Back 104

Core (The field is generated in the outer part of the core, which is believed to be a liquid iron alloy)

Front 105

How were scientists able to determine the date of the magnetic reversals during seafloor spreading

Back 105

Small marine fossils in deep-sea sediments give the age of the portions of the seafloor

Front 106

How is information about magnetic fields recorded in rocks

Back 106

Iron particles in magnetically susceptible minerals within basaltic lava align with the magnetic field of the Earth while the lava is still liquid and then freeze in position when the lava solidifies

Front 107

Where are tectonic plates located

Back 107

at Earth's surface

Front 108

What are the three types of plate boundaries

Back 108

convergent, divergent, and transform plate boundaries

Front 109

Earthquakes with magnitude greater than 4.0 occur in a ________ than correlates closely with _________________

Back 109

pattern; plate boundaries

Front 110

Which plate boundary is NOT associated with volcanic eruptions

Back 110

transform plate boundaries

Front 111

Which phenomenon can explain the presence of volcanoes in the middle of the Pacific Ocean

Back 111

hot spots

Front 112

Which type of plate boundary is most closely associated with uplifting continental regions and mountain building

Back 112

convergent plate boundaries

Front 113

Which type of plate boundary is most closely associated with the formation of new ocean floor

Back 113

divergent plate boundaries

Front 114

How often does the Earth's magnetic field switch polarity

Back 114

every 100,000 to several millions of years

Front 115

How are normal polarity and reverse polarity of Earth's magnetic field different

Back 115

A compass points toward the North Pole during normal polarity and to the South Pole during reverse polarity

Front 116

In general, what is our best evidence that the orientation of Earth's magnetic field has changed over time

Back 116

A record of Earth's magnetic field is recorded in oceanic rocks, which show a clear pattern of changes in Earth's magnetic polarity

Front 117

Where would you expect to see alternating bands of rock with different magnetic polarities

Back 117

on both sides of the mid-ocean ridge

Front 118

Oceanic trenches are formed as a result of

Back 118

subduction

Front 119

a break in rock mass along which movement occurred

Back 119

fault

Front 120

Minerals

Back 120

naturally occurring inorganic solids that possess an orderly internal structure and a well-defined chemical composition

Front 121

silicon oxygen tetrahedron

Back 121

is the SiO4 anionic group, or a silicon atom with four surrounding oxygen atoms arranged to define the corners of a tetrahedron. This is a fundamental component of most silicates in the Earth's crust. (makes up a triangle shape)

Front 122

compound

Back 122

a thing that is composed of two or more separate elements; a mixture

Front 123

complex ion

Back 123

any ion containing two or more elements

Front 124

ion

Back 124

an atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to the loss or gain of one or more electrons.

Front 125

ferromagnesian silicates

Back 125

silicates with iron and/or magnesium in their structure. Most ferromagnesium minerals are dark-colored and more dense

Front 126

nonferromagnesian silicates

Back 126

silicates with less or no iron and/or magnesium in their structure. Most nonferromagnesium minerals are light-colored and less dense

Front 127

The main mineral used in making glass is

Back 127

quartz

Front 128

The silicon-oxygen tetrahedron contains

Back 128

one silicon atom and four oxygen atoms

Front 129

The ratio of silicon to oxygen atoms in silicate minerals depends on

Back 129

how the atoms in silicon-oxygen tetrahedra are shared in the mineral

Front 130

In silicate minerals, the type of cleavage or fracture is influenced by

Back 130

the bonding of the silicon-oxygen tetrahedra within the mineral (The way the silicon-oxygen tetrahedra are connected to one another influences how silicate minerals cleave or fracture by creating planes of relative weakness in the mineral’s crystalline structure)

Front 131

The arrangement of the silicon-oxygen tetrahedra in ferromagnesian (iron- and magnesium-bearing) silicate minerals is typically

Back 131

in a chain (ferromagnesian silicate minerals the silicon-oxygen tetrahedra are attached in either single or double chains.)

Front 132

The mineral fluorite is an example of

Back 132

a halite mineral

Front 133

The mineral bornet (copper) is an example of

Back 133

a sulfide mineral

Front 134

The mineral diamond is an example of

Back 134

a native element

Front 135

The mineral magnetite is an example of

Back 135

a oxide mineral

Front 136

Why glass is not considered a mineral

Back 136

Glass has a disorderly atomic structure

Front 137

Minerals must be solid, have an orderly atomic structure, have a recognized chemical composition, be naturally occurring, and ________

Back 137

inorganic by origin

Front 138

Regardless of their size, most rocks are made up of _______

Back 138

minerals

Front 139

How do you find the number of neutrons in an element

Back 139

The mass number, which is the atomic weight of an element rounded up, is equal to the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in an atom. So you would subtract the number of neutrons from the atomic weight of an element

Front 140

The external expression of a mineral’s orderly internal arrangement of atoms is referred to as

Back 140

the crystal form

Front 141

The property of cleavage reflects

Back 141

mechanical breakage along planes of weakness within the mineral

Front 142

In the field, you find an unidentified mineral that is clear, exhibits conchoidal fracture, and can scratch glass. This mineral is most likely

Back 142

quartz

Front 143

While studying some sedimentary rocks in your field area, you find a mineral with rhombohedral cleavage that reacts with hydrochloric acid. You determine that this mineral is

Back 143

calcite

Front 144

What causes a lack of cleavage or no cleavage in some minerals

Back 144

Bonds of equal strength in all directions

Front 145

Olivine, quartz or glass exhibits what type of fracture

Back 145

conchoidal fracture

Front 146

a cubic mineral has how many plains of cleavage

Back 146

3 plains of cleavage

Front 147

What causes the same mineral to occur in varieties that are different colors

Back 147

A small amount of impurities in the crystal structure

Front 148

mineral habit

Back 148

The shape a mineral grows into, given sufficient space

Front 149

What discourages minerals from achieving habit

Back 149

enclosed spaces

Front 150

Crystal habit is the shape that a mineral develops by the repetition of _______

Back 150

the basic unit cell of a mineral

Front 151

Other than space, what two additional factors are significant for a crystal to attain habit

Back 151

Time and necessary elements

Front 152

Hardness describes a mineral’s ______

Back 152

resistance to being scratched

Front 153

What is the basic foundation of Moh’s hardness scale

Back 153

If a mineral scratches an object, then the mineral is harder than the object

Front 154

Name the hardest and softest mineral on the Moh’s scale.

Back 154

diamond and talc

Front 155

Moh’s scale

Back 155

a scale of hardness used in classifying minerals. It runs from 1 to 10 using a series of reference minerals, and a position on the scale depends on the ability to scratch minerals rated lower

Front 156

Protons have _____ density and a charge of

Back 156

Higher density and a charge of +1

Front 157

Electrons have very _______ density and a charge of −1

Back 157

Low density and a charge of -1

Front 158

Each atom is composed of protons and neutrons at its _______

Back 158

nucleus or center

Front 159

an atom is electrically what

Back 159

neutral (no electric charge)

Front 160

Neutrons have the same density as

Back 160

protons

Front 161

pyroclastic debris

Back 161

volcanic rock ejected during an eruption. Pyroclastics includes ash, bombs, cinders and blocks

Front 162

another word for extrusive igneous rocks

Back 162

volcanic igneous rocks

Front 163

another word for intrusive igneous rocks

Back 163

plutonic igneous rocks

Front 164

As a result of partial melting, magma originates in ________

Back 164

mantel and crust

Front 165

When lava erupts at Earth’s surface, what type of rock is produced

Back 165

extrusive igneous rock

Front 166

Why does magma have a tendency to rise after its formation

Back 166

It is less dense then the surrounding rock

Front 167

Most igneous rocks never reach the surface. However, igneous rocks other than those formed in volcanoes are found exposed on many parts of Earth. How do you account for this phenomenon

Back 167

the formed at great depth and have been exposed by erosion and uplifting

Front 168

igneous rocks that form at the surface or within the upper crust (sill) are often what texture

Back 168

fine-grained texture

Front 169

vesicular texture

Back 169

a volcanic rock texture characterized by a rock being pitted with many cavities (known as vesicles) at its surface and inside. Caused by gasses trying to escape the lava when cooling. The texture is often found in extrusive aphanitic, or glassy, igneous rock

Front 170

intrusive igneous rocks are often what texture

Back 170

coarse-grained texture

Front 171

extreme rapid cooling of lava can generate what texture

Back 171

A glassy texture (results when the ions are unordered, that is, have not formed an orderly crystalline structure)

Front 172

porphyritic texture

Back 172

An igneous rock texture characterized by two different crystal sizes. The larger crystals are called phenocrysts, the smaller crystals are called the groundmass

Front 173

phenocrysts

Back 173

A relatively large crystal embedded in a matrix of finer grained crystals

Front 174

groundmass

Back 174

The matrix of smaller (fine-grained) crystals within an igneous rock that has a porphyritic texture

Front 175

laccolith

Back 175

medium sized intrusive body where coarse-grained rocks may form

Front 176

sill

Back 176

a very thin and shallow intrusive body where fine grained rocks may form

Front 177

Batholith

Back 177

a large deep intrusive body where coarse-grained rocks may form

Front 178

dark silicates

Back 178

a silicate material containing ions of iron and/or magnesium in its structure. has a relatively high specific gravity

Front 179

light silicates

Back 179

a silicate material lacks iron and/or magnesium but has a fair amount of potassium, sodium and calcium also has a lower specific gravity

Front 180

basaltic rocks

Back 180

a fine-grained igneous rock that is of mafic composition. They also make up most of the ocean floor

Front 181

ultramafic composition

Back 181

a composition group of igneous rock containing mostly olivine and pyroxene (high melting point)

Front 182

basaltic composition (mafic)

Back 182

fine grained igneous rock with a mafic composition (mostly contains pyroxene and calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar)

Front 183

andesitic composition (intermediate)

Back 183

igneous rocks that have a mineral makeup between that of basalt and granite. (mostly contains amphibole and intermediate plagioclase feldspar)

Front 184

granitic composition (felsic)

Back 184

A composition igneous rock group that indicates that the the rock is almost entirely composed of light color silicates, also very similar to the rock granite Mostly contains potassium feldspar, sodium-rich plagioclase feldspar, and quartz (low melting point)

Front 185

name the four igneous rocks mineral compositions

Back 185

granitic (felsic), basalt (mafic), andesitic (intermediate), and ultramafic compositions

Front 186

name the six igneous rock textures

Back 186

fine grained (aphanitic), course-grained (phaneritic), porphyritic, vesicular, pyroclastic, and glassy textures

Front 187

Intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks are classified based on what criteria

Back 187

How quickly the molten rock cools and crystallizes, and where this occurs with respect to Earth’s surface

Front 188

What is required to generate an igneous rock with a fine-grained texture

Back 188

A fine-grained texture is the product of rapid cooling and crystallization of lava

Front 189

aphanitic

Back 189

fine crystals (extrusive)

Front 190

phaneritic

Back 190

coarse crystals (intrusive)

Front 191

What is one way a glassy texture forms

Back 191

lava cooling rapidly

Front 192

Which of the following describes a texture containing bubble-shaped cavities

Back 192

vesicular texture

Front 193

Pegmatitic textures

Back 193

igneous rock with anomalously large crystals formed from the cooling of a wet magma

Front 194

pyroclastic texture

Back 194

the consoildation of individual rock fragments that was likely formed by a violent volcanic eruption

Front 195

Which texture indicates two stages of cooling and crystallization

Back 195

Porphyritic texture

Front 196

Basalt (Mafic) and ultramafic igneous rocks are rich in what elements

Back 196

in Iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), and calcium (Ca)

Front 197

granitic (felsic) and andesitic (intermediate) igneous rocks are rich in what elements

Back 197

in silica (Si), potassium (K), and Sodium (Na)

Front 198

What is the classification of igneous rocks based on

Back 198

composition and texture

Front 199

viscosity

Back 199

a fluids resistance to flow

Front 200

rhyolitic magma flows slow or fast

Back 200

slow

Front 201

basaltic magma flows slow or fast

Back 201

fast

Front 202

pahoehoe

Back 202

A lava flow with a smooth to ropy texture (forms from basaltic magma flows)

Front 203

Aa

Back 203

A type of lava flow with a jagged or blocky surface

Front 204

shield volcano

Back 204

A broad gently sloping volcano built from fluid basaltic lava

Front 205

quiescent

Back 205

in a state or period of inactivity or dormancy

Front 206

cinder cones

Back 206

A rather small volcano built primarily of pyroclastics ejected from a single vent (often produced on the side of a larger volcano)

Front 207

angle of repose

Back 207

the steepest angle which loose material remains at a stationary position without sliding downslope

Front 208

stratovolcanoes or composite cones

Back 208

A volcano composed of both pyroclastic material and lava flows

Front 209

pyroclastic flows

Back 209

Hot, fast moving body of expanding gas and ash that hugs the flanks of the volcano

(high-density mixtures of hot, dry rock fragments and hot gases that move away from the vent that erupted them at high speeds. They may result from the explosive eruption of molten or solid rock fragments, or both)

Front 210

lahar

Back 210

a type of mudflow or debris flow composed of a slurry of pyroclastic material, rocky debris, and water. The material flows down from a volcano

Front 211

tabular

Back 211

Having a plane surface; flat (sheetlike)

Front 212

Dike

Back 212

A tabular-shaped intrusive igneous feature that cuts through the surrounding rock

Front 213

Sill

Back 213

A tabular igneous body that formed parallel to the layering of the pre-existing rocks

Front 214

laccoliths

Back 214

An igneous body that is formed the same way as sills but instead with viscous magma that arch the overlaying strata

Front 215

Batholith

Back 215

large body of igneous rock formed beneath the Earth’s surface by the intrusion and solidification of magma and was eventually exposed by uplifting and erosion

Front 216

discordant

Back 216

lack of parallelism between adjacent strata, as in an angular unconformity

Front 217

What is the term for a tabular igneous pluton that occurs in an orientation that is discordant with the bedding surfaces of adjacent sedimentary rocks

Back 217

dike

Front 218

strata

Back 218

a layer of sedimentary rock or soil with internally consistent characteristics that distinguish it from other layers

Front 219

concordant

Back 219

Corresponding in direction with the planes of adjacent or underlying strata.

Front 220

What is the term for a tabular igneous pluton that occurs in an orientation that is concordant with the bedding surfaces of adjacent sedimentary rocks

Back 220

sill

Front 221

Which of the following terms is best described as a massive pluton

Back 221

batholith

Front 222

While working in the field, you find a dike cutting across some sedimentary rocks. What grain size would you expect to find in this pluton

Back 222

fine-grained texture (the thin, tabular nature of dikes and sills, they tend to cool rather quickly, thus producing a fine-grained texture in the rocks found within them)

Front 223

Ultramafic rocks contain __________ and are commonly found in __________.

Back 223

olivine; mantle

Front 224

What is an accessory mineral

Back 224

A mineral that makes up a relatively small portion of the total rock composition

Front 225

What is the rock name of an intermediate rock with two distinct grain sizes

Back 225

andesite porphyry

Front 226

What do pumice and scoria have in common

Back 226

they both exhibit a vesicular texture

Front 227

What is the Greek translation of the word geology

Back 227

Earth discourse, or the study of Earth

Front 228

the steps in the formation of the solar system, according to the nebular theory

Back 228

1.Dust and gases in the solar nebula collapse.

2.A rotating disk of hot gases is formed

3.The nebular cloud cools and metallic material condenses

4.Asteroids are formed by repeated collisions of particles

5.Accretion occurs

Front 229

Most igneous rocks are composed of ______

Back 229

silicon and oxygen

Front 230

What is the term used to describe increased temperature with depth in the Earth

Back 230

Geothermal gradient

Front 231

What is the geological definition of texture

Back 231

Size and shape of mineral grains in the sample

Front 232

Sills are intrusive igneous structures that display a __________ texture

Back 232

fine-grained texture

Front 233

According to the textbook, understanding Earth is challenging because our planet is a __________ body with many interacting parts and a complex history

Back 233

dynamic

Front 234

Besides the fitting together of the continents, Wegener’s idea of continental drift was based on fossil evidence between what two continents

Back 234

Fossil evidence between South America and Africa

Front 235

Seafloor spreading was supported as an idea after which discovery was made during World War II

Back 235

A global oceanic ridge system

Front 236

Which of the following is direct evidence for plate motion?

Back 236

Hot spot tracks

Front 237

name an example of a transform plate margin between two plates

Back 237

Portions of the boundary between the North American and Pacific plates

Front 238

Because transform plate margins involve no subduction or volcanism, they are often described as __________ plate margins

Back 238

conservative

Front 239

According to J. Tuzo Wilson, what do transform faults most often connect with

Back 239

Sections of ocean ridges

Front 240

Heat loss from Earth’s surface leading to the creation of cold lithospheric slabs is one of the thermal processes that drive ________

Back 240

mantle convection

Front 241

Lava at hot spots originates from a ________________________, whereas lava that erupts along a mid-ocean ridge is derived from the _________________

Back 241

deeper, more primitive magma source; upper, well-mixed convective layer

Front 242

To explain continental drift, Wegener proposed what? (more detailed)

Back 242

that the continents broke through the oceanic crust, much as icebreakers cut through ice

Front 243

What important contribution did Vine and Matthews make to the concept of seafloor spreading and, consequently, plate tectonics

Back 243

Magnetic patterns in oceanic crust recorded reversals and could be used to create a time scale

Front 244

The trend of the __________ boundary is roughly parallel to the direction of plate motion

Back 244

transform plate

Front 245

prior to the 1960s what was the view most geologists had regarding the ocean basins and continents

Back 245

They believed to have fixed positions and rejected continental drifting

Front 246

what group of geologist were the least receptive to the continental drift hypothesis and Why

Back 246

North american geologists because most of the supporting evidence had been gathered from other continents

Front 247

How did the opponents of continental drift explain the existence of identical fossil organisms in places separated by oceans

Back 247

Rafting, transoceanic land bridges, and island stepping stones

Front 248

What two aspects of Wegener's continental drift hypothesis were objectioable to most Earth scientists

Back 248

That the tides had moved the continents / that the larger and sturdier continents broke through the thinner oceanic crust

Front 249

What major ocean floor feature did oceographers discover after WW2

Back 249

global oceanic ridge system

Front 250

list the seven largest lithospheric plates

Back 250

North American, South American, Pacific, African, eurasian, australian-indian, and antarctic plates

Front 251

List the seven intermediate-sized plates

Back 251

Nazca, Philippine, Arabian, cocos, scotia, and juan de fuca plates (oceanic except arabian)

Front 252

rift valley

Back 252

a canyonlike structure in the middle of the divergent boundaries

Front 253

list four factors that characterize the oceanic ridge system

Back 253

Upwelling, rift valley, oceanic lithosphere, and seafloor spreading

Front 254

Deep-ocean trenches are form where

Back 254

subduction zones at convergent plate boundaries

Front 255

the nature of transform faults was discovered in 1965 by

Back 255

A canadian geologist named J. Tuzo Wilson

Front 256

Which type of magma has the highest viscosity

Back 256

rhyolitic magma

Front 257

what has an major influence on whether a volcanic eruption will be effusive or violent

Back 257

amount of gas in the magma

Front 258

Which type of lava will most likely lead to a volcanic eruption of an effusive nature

Back 258

basaltic lava

Front 259

The subduction of oceanic crust under continental crust predominantly produces what type of volcanic eruption

Back 259

violent and explosive

Front 260

A hot spot that occurs in oceanic crust is likely to produce what type of eruption

Back 260

quiet and effusive

Front 261

what best describes large, nearly symmetrical structures composed of interbedded lavas and pyroclastic material primarily deposited from a central vent

Back 261

composite volcano

Front 262

what volcanic type typically produces small, steep-sided structures composed of pyroclastic material

Back 262

cinder cones

Front 263

What do we call mudflows produced by the melting of snow and glaciers on composite volcanoes

Back 263

lahars

Front 264

At which type of tectonic setting would you expect the development of shield volcanoes

Back 264

mantle plumes or hot spots

Front 265

At which type of tectonic setting would you expect the development of composite volcanoes

Back 265

an oceanic plate subducted beneath a continental plate

Front 266

name the four types of pyroclastic material

Back 266

Ash, blocks, bombs, and lapilli

Front 267

lapilli

Back 267

pyroclastic material that have diameters between 2 and 64 mm about the size of a ping pong ball

Front 268

blocks

Back 268

very large pyroclastic material

Front 269

bombs

Back 269

A lava that is ejected out of the volcano and solidifies before it hits the ground

Front 270

Ash

Back 270

Microscopic pieces of rock ejected by a volcano

Front 271

Which of the following is the volcanic feature in which magma rises through before it is released at the surface

Back 271

conduit

Front 272

What information do geologists use to classify volcanoes

Back 272

shape and type of deposits

Front 273

Cinder cones are made of________

Back 273

pryoclastic deposits

Front 274

In general, how often do most cinder cones erupt

Back 274

most cinder cones only erupt once

Front 275

What are shield volcanoes generally made of

Back 275

basaltic lava flows

Front 276

What is the range of shield volcano height

Back 276

300 to 10,000 meters high

Front 277

What are composite volcanoes made of

Back 277

Pyroclastic deposits

Front 278

Why are shield volcanoes wider than composite volcanoes

Back 278

The lava that flows out of shield volcanoes is more fluid than the lava that flows out of composite volcanoes

Front 279

What type of magma erupts out of dome complexes

Back 279

felsic magma

Front 280

What type of volcanoes are the highest

Back 280

shield volcanos

Front 281

What is the range of dome complex height

Back 281

500 to 2,000 meters

Front 282

what lava type would you expect to see the development of pahoehoe

Back 282

fluid basaltic lava

Front 283

what lava type would you expect to find the greatest percentage of gases

Back 283

rhyolitic lava (as the silica content in lava types increases, it becomes harder for the gases to escape; thus gas content also increases.)

Front 284

what type of lava would you expect to find the greatest production of pyroclastic material

Back 284

rhyolitic lava (As the silica content of lava increases, the amount of pyroclastic material produced in the eruption also increases)

Front 285

What do we call pyroclastic material, ejected during a volcanic eruption, composed of incandescent lava that is greater than 64 millimeters (2.5 inches) in diameter

Back 285

bombs

Front 286

What gases is most abundant in basaltic lavas

Back 286

water vapor

Front 287

At what tectonic setting would you expect to find volcanoes producing the highest volumes of pyroclastic material

Back 287

subduction of an oceanic plate under a continental plate

Front 288

At what tectonic setting would you expect to find volcanoes producing significant amounts of very fluid, high-temperature lavas

Back 288

mantle plumes or hot spots

Front 289

What lies underneath volcanic features at Earth's surface

Back 289

magma chambers and volcanic conduits

Front 290

What is the difference between a dike and a sill

Back 290

A dike intrudes across sedimentary layers, and a sill intrudes between sedimentary layers

Front 291

What is a volcanic conduit called after the conduit has solidified and been exposed by erosion

Back 291

volcanic necks

Front 292

Why are volcanic rocks often exposed at Earth's surface as hills, ridges, and mountains surrounded by areas of lower elevation

Back 292

Volcanic rocks are often more resistant to erosion than surrounding rock

Front 293

What is a magma chamber called after the conduit has solidified and been exposed by erosion

Back 293

batholith

Front 294

What type of volcanism characterizes the ring of fire that wraps itself around the pacific

Back 294

volcanism caused by convergent oceanic-continental and oceanic-oceanic boundaries

Front 295

At what tectonic setting is Hawaii located

Back 295

oceanic hot spot

Front 296

What drives melting at divergent boundaries

Back 296

decompression melting

Front 297

Which of the following was a stage in the formation of Yellowstone caldera

Back 297

Crust bows upward above a magma chamber

Front 298

caldera

Back 298

a large volcanic crater, typically one formed by a major eruption leading to the collapse of the mouth of the volcano.

Front 299

How are felsic magmas formed

Back 299

Heat from the mantle melts part of the lower crust.

Front 300

How do mafic volcanic rocks get to Earth's surface

Back 300

Pressure from overlying crust forces mantle magmas through cracks to Earth's surface. These magmas erupt out of volcanoes, cool, and solidify into rock

Front 301

volcanic cones

Back 301

cone-shaped structure created by successive eruptions of volcanic materials such as lava or pyroclastic materials

Front 302

What is Catastrophism?

Back 302

is the theory that the Earth has been affected in the past by sudden, short-lived, violent events, possibly worldwide in scope. Made by Georges Cuvier.

Front 303

What is Uniformitarianism?

Back 303

is the assumption that the same natural laws and processes that operate in the universe now have always operated in the universe in the past and apply everywhere in the universe. It has included the gradualistic concept that "the present is the key to the past". Made by James Hutton.

Front 304

most transform faults are part of prominent linear breaks in the seafloor

Back 304

fracture zones

Front 305

seamounts

Back 305

underwater mountains that rise hundreds or thousands of feet from the seafloor. They are generally extinct volcanoes that, while active, created piles of lava that sometimes break the ocean surface

Front 306

curie point

Back 306

the temperature where a material's permanent magnetism changes to induced magnetism. The force of magnetism is determined by magnetic moments

Front 307

paleomagnetism or fossil magnetism

Back 307

the record of the Earth's magnetic field in rocks, or sediment materials. Certain minerals in rocks lock-in a record of the direction and intensity of the magnetic field when they form.

Front 308

what did Fred Vine and D. H. Matthews do?

Back 308

They related seafloor-spreading hypothesis to magnetic reversals by providing evidence of parallel symmetrical magnetism on both sides of a oceanic ridge which suggest that the sediment is being produced at these ridges

Front 309

slab pull

Back 309

the subduction of cold dense slabs of oceanic lithosphere

Front 310

ridge push

Back 310

gravity driven mechanism that results from the elevated position of the oceanic ridge, which causes slabs of lithosphere to slide down the flanks of the ridge

Front 311

what is one way geologist can establish the direction of plate motion in the past

Back 311

by studying fracture zones

Front 312

fracture zones

Back 312

inactive extensions of transform faults (record of past directions of plate motion)

Front 313

what do transform faults that connect spreading center indicate about plate motion

Back 313

the direction of plate movement

Front 314

what is a atom and what does it contain

Back 314

the smallest particles that cannot be chemically split also contain protons, neutrons and a nucleus (it is also surrounded by electrons)

Front 315

what surrounds the nucleus

Back 315

electrons

Front 316

which has a least amount of mass, protons, neutrons, or electrons

Back 316

electrons

Front 317

valence electrons

Back 317

the electrons in the outer shell of an atom. The valence electrons are the ones involved in forming bonds to adjacent atoms

Front 318

atomic number

Back 318

the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

Front 319

chemical compounds

Back 319

atoms of two or more elements

Front 320

octet rule

Back 320

atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons until they are surrounded by eight valence electrons

Front 321

chemical bond

Back 321

A strong attractive force that exists between atoms in a substance. the transfer or sharing of electrons between each atoms to gain a full valence shell of electrons

Front 322

ions

Back 322

positively and negatively charged atoms

Front 323

ionic bond

Back 323

the attraction of oppositely charged ions to one another, producing an electrically neutral ionic compound (exchanging)

Front 324

covalent bond

Back 324

a chemical bond formed by the sharing of one or more valence electrons between a pair of atoms

Front 325

metallic bonds

Back 325

a bond where the electrons are free to move from atom to atom

Front 326

what occurs in an atom to produce a positive ion or a negative ion

Back 326

ionic bond

Front 327

what is the difference between and atom and an ion

Back 327

an atom is neutrally charged and an ion is positively or negitively charged

Front 328

list 3 ways minerals and rocks can form

Back 328

precipitation of mineral matter, crystallization of molten rock, and deposition as a result of biological processes

Front 329

luster

Back 329

the appearance or quality of light reflected from the surface of a mineral

Front 330

what is tenacity and name three types

Back 330

the minerals toughness or its resistance to breaking or deforming.

brittle, malleable, and elastic tenacity

Front 331

columnar joints

Back 331

A pattern of cracks that forms during cooling of molten rock to generate columns

Front 332

partial melting

Back 332

The process by which most igneous rocks melt. Since individual minerals have different melting points, most igneous rocks melt over a temperature range of a few hundred degrees. If the liquid is squeezed out after some melting has occurred, a melt with a higher silica content results

Front 333

magma mixing

Back 333

the process of incorporating two magma bodys into one to form a intermediate composition

Front 334

unit cell

Back 334

The smallest group of atoms, ions, or molecules that form the building block of a crystal.

Front 335

the geology term for crystal or crystalline

Back 335

any natural solid with an orderly, repeating internal structure

Front 336

Steno's Law (law of constancy of interfacial angles)

Back 336

the angles between two corresponding faces on the crystals of any solid chemical or mineral species are constant

Front 337

polymorphs

Back 337

Two or more minerals having the same chemical composition but different crystalline structures. Exemplified by the diamond and graphite forms of carbon

Front 338

rock-forming minerals

Back 338

make up most of the rocks of the earth's crust

Front 339

economic minerals

Back 339

used extensively in the manufacture of products

Front 340

list the 8 most common elements in the earth's crust

Back 340

oxygen (O) silicon (Si) aluminum (Al) iron (Fe) calcium (Ca) sodium (Na) potassium (K) and magnesium (Mg) (in order of abundance)

Front 341

The ratio of oxygen ions to silicon ions differs in each type of silicate structure, how?

Back 341

as more oxygen is shared the percentage of silicon in the structure increases

Front 342

what is the difference between dark silicates and light silicates other than color

Back 342

dark silicates contain large amounts of iron and magnesium and light silicates contain potassium, calcium, sodium and aluminum

Front 343

list six common nonsilicate mineral groups

Back 343

Carbonates, halides, oxides, sulfides, sulfates, and native elements

Front 344

Mohs scale

Back 344

a series of 10 minerals used as a standard in determining hardness

Front 345

nucleus

Back 345

The small, heavy core of an atom that contains all of its positive charge and most of its mass.

Front 346

list 3 magma components

Back 346

liquid, solid, and a gaseous components

Front 347

the liquid portion of magma is called what

Back 347

melt

Front 348

the gaseous components of magma are called what

Back 348

volatiles

Front 349

what is the most common volatile found in magma

Back 349

water vaper

Front 350

igneous rocks are composed mainly of which group of minerals

Back 350

silicate minerals

Front 351

what 3 factors influence the textures of igneous rocks

Back 351

the rate at which molten rock cools, the amount of silica present, and the amount of dissolved gases in the magma

Front 352

what two main rocks defines felsic composition

Back 352

granite and rhyolite

Front 353

what two main rocks defines intermediate composition

Back 353

diorite and andesite

Front 354

what two main rocks defines mafic composition

Back 354

gabbro and basalt

Front 355

what main rock defines ultramafic composition

Back 355

peridotite

Front 356

crystal settling

Back 356

This process occurs when the earlier-formed minerals are denser that the liquid portion and sink toward the bottom of the magma chamber

Front 357

the formation of one or more secondary magmas from a single parent magma

Back 357

magmatic differentiation

Front 358

assimilation

Back 358

when the magma from the magma chamber melts the surrounding mantle rock and mixes within the magma chamber

Front 359

what process generates most granitic magmas

Back 359

partial melting of the continental crust

Front 360

xenolith

Back 360

a piece of rock trapped in another type of rock. Most of the time, a xenolith is a rock embedded in magma while the magma was cooling

Front 361

host or country rock

Back 361

preexisting crustal rocks

Front 362

stocks

Back 362

a smaller portion of a batholiths (multiple stocks makes up a batholith)

Front 363

eruption columns

Back 363

consists of hot volcanic ash emitted during an explosive volcanic eruption. The ash forms a column rising many kilometres into the air above the peak of the volcano.

Front 364

List 3 factors affecting viscosity

Back 364

temperature, composition, and dissolved gases

Front 365

tephra

Back 365

pyroclastic materials

Front 366

what emits out of a fumarole

Back 366

gas (fumaroles can be another name for parasitic cones that just emit gas instead of lava)

Front 367

fissure

Back 367

a crack that develops in the earths crust as magma moves forcefully toward the surface)

Front 368

flood basalts

Back 368

lava plateau nearly 90 miles long created by fissure eruptions

Front 369

pipes

Back 369

a rare type of conduit that carries magma that originates in the mantle

Front 370

intraplate volcanism

Back 370

volcanism occurring within a plate

Front 371

what four factors do volcanologists monitor in order to determine whether magma is migrating toward earth's surface

Back 371

1) changes in the pattern of earthquakes produced by the movement of magma

2)magma entering a near-surface magma chamber which leads to inflation of the volcano

3)changes in the amount and/or composition of gases released from a volcano

4)an increase in ground temperature caused by the introduction of new magma