Final Geology Exam: Part 2

Front 1

Made the idea of continental drift

Back 1

Alfred Wegner

Front 2

Fit of continental margins, same mountain ranges on different continents,

fossils found across oceans, presence of 300 myr old glacial deposits

Back 2

Evidence for Continental Drift

Front 3

Gondwana: all continents connected before Pangea

Back 3

Pangea & Godwana

Front 4

Evidence of magnetic fields

Back 4

Paleomagnetism

Front 5

When the magnetic poles flip

Back 5

Magnetic Reversals

Front 6

Movement of earth's outer layer

Back 6

Plate Tectonics

Front 7

Margin: Formation of land

Back 7

Construct Margins

Front 8

Margin: Destruction of plate boundary

Back 8

Destruct margins

Front 9

Ridge may run through the middle of an ocean basin

Back 9

Mid-Ocean Ridge

Front 10

Lithosphere goes under the asthenosphere

Back 10

Subduction Zones

Front 11

Gravity driven force that results from the elevated position of the ridge

Back 11

Ridge Push

Front 12

Measure of # of degrees E and W of North

Back 12

Strike

Front 13

Measure of # of degrees from Horizontal

Back 13

Dip

Front 14

Force applied to an area (compression, tension, shear)

Back 14

Stress

Front 15

Changes in the shape of a rock unit caused by stress

Back 15

Strain

Front 16

solid material that will deform when exposed to stress

Back 16

Elastic

Front 17

Flows (bends)

Back 17

Plastic Ductile

Front 18

Fracture (breaks)

Back 18

Brittle

Front 19

No appreciable movement across crack

Back 19

Joints

Front 20

Relative movement of rocks on either side of fracture

Back 20

Faults

Front 21

Movement is mainly up-down

Back 21

Dip-Slip Fault

Front 22

Movement is mainly horizontal

Back 22

Strike-Slip Fault

Front 23

Fault where the hanging wall moves down (look at the hanging wall)

Tensional: pull apart

Back 23

Normal Fault

Front 24

Result of compression, hanging wall moves up

Back 24

Reverse Fault

Front 25

Low-angle reverse fault

Back 25

Thrust Fault

Front 26

Fault as the result of shear stress

Back 26

Transform Fault

Front 27

When you can hang something above your head

Back 27

Hanging wall

Front 28

What you would be standing on

Back 28

Foot wall

Front 29

Transversal: pick a fault and see which way it moves from both sides

Back 29

Right-lateral/Left-lateral

Front 30

a topographic high where both sides of the horst are footwall of normal faults, mountain

Back 30

Horst

Front 31

a topographic low where both sides of the graben are the hanging wall of normal faults, valley

Back 31

Graben

Front 32

a topographic low where one side is the footwall and the other is the hanging wall both of normal faults, in between mountains

Back 32

Half-Graben

Front 33

connects points of max curvature

Back 33

Fold: Axis

Front 34

two sides of the fold

Back 34

Fold: Limb

Front 35

the zone of max curvature

Back 35

Fold: Hinge

Front 36

an imaginary plane that connects all the lines of

maximum curvature

Back 36

Fold: Axial Plane

Front 37

Folds that form a “v” shape

Back 37

Plunging Folds

Front 38

Fold that only has one limb

Back 38

Monocline

Front 39

Circular structure where older material is on top

Back 39

Dome

Front 40

Structure that fills like a hole

-younger in the middle

Back 40

Basin

Front 41

Linear fold where the crust is warped up like an arch: oldest on top

Back 41

Anticline

Front 42

Linear fold where the crust is warped down like a U: youngest on top

Back 42

Syncline

Front 43

_________ occur around plate boundaries

Back 43

Most Earthquakes

Front 44

Center of slippage (source of the quake)

Back 44

Focus

Front 45

The point on the earth’s surface immediately above the focus

Back 45

Epicenter

Front 46

Waves that travels over earths surface, earthquake damage

Back 46

Surface Waves

Front 47

Waves that travel through earth's interior (P & S waves)

Back 47

Body Waves

Front 48

Body wave that changes volume of material, forward-backward movement,

travels the fastest, travels through liquids and solids

Back 48

P Waves

Front 49

Body wave that changes the shape of materials, movement is up-down, travels slower than P waves, travels only through solid.

Back 49

S Waves

Front 50

Surface wave that has up-down motion

Back 50

Raleigh Waves

Front 51

Surface wave that has snail like movement

Back 51

Love Waves

Front 52

By combining at least three seismic stations the epicenter is located where the three circles meet

Back 52

Locating Earthquakes

Front 53

Average amount of slip of the fault

Back 53

Magnitude Release

Front 54

Earthquake scale based on amplitude of largest seismic wave recorded adjusted for distance to epicenter (objective)

Back 54

Richter Scale

Front 55

Earthquake scale based on the amount and type of damage (subjective)

Back 55

Mercalli Scale

Front 56

Occurs when previously stable water logged soil separate and begins to behave like fluid

Back 56

Liquefaction

Front 57

Tsunamis are __________ because they are frequently triggered by earthquakes

Back 57

Earthquake Hazards

Front 58

* Earth’s thin outer skin: range in thickness from ~3 km (2 miles) at the oceanic ridges to ~80 km (50 miles) in some mountain belts)
* Comprises 0.6% of Earth’s volume
* Oceanic: Younger than continental, Gets subducted - always created & destroyed, Basalt - Mafic composition
* Continental: Granite - Felsic composition

Back 58

Crust

Front 59

* ultramafic, olivine rich, composed of peridotite

Back 59

Mantle

Front 60

* Divided into inner (solid) & outer (liquid)

Back 60

Core

Front 61

* forms the Earth’s Tectonic plates that move.
* comprises Crust + uppermost Mantle. varies in thickness from 70 km to 250 km

Back 61

Lithosphere

Front 62

* Soft, comparatively weak layer of upper mantle beneath the lithosphere. Close to or at melting point - small % of melt present

Back 62

Asthenosphere

Front 63

-The part of the mantle that extends from the core-mantle boundary

(lower mantle)

Back 63

Mesosphere

Front 64

* Responsible for Earth’s magnetic field

Back 64

Inner Core

Front 65

liquid outer layer ~2270 km thick

Back 65

Outer Core

Front 66

denser, more tightly-packed forms of these minerals (e.g. perovskite)

Back 66

Lower Mantle

Front 67

olivine + pyroxene minerals

Back 67

Upper Mantle

Front 68

Deep crust that appears on the upper mantle

Back 68

Xenoliths

Front 69

Boundary between the crust and the mantle

Back 69

Moho

Front 70

The redirection of some waves back to the surface when seismic waves hit a boundary between different Earth materials

Back 70

Reflection

Front 71

Change in direction of waves as they enter shallow water.

The portion of the wave in shallow water is slowed, which causes the waves to bend and align with the underwater contours

Back 71

Refraction

Front 72

Composition of the core & mantle: _____ & _____

Back 72

Iron & Nickel

Front 73

Forces that are unequal in different directions

Back 73

Differentiation

Front 74

-ultramafic rock, composition of the mantle

Back 74

Peridotite

Front 75

Mineral in lower mantle = denser, more tightly-packed forms

Back 75

Perovskite

Front 76

Earth's temperature gradually increases with depth at a rate

Back 76

Geothermal Gradient

Front 77

Heat transferred through crust

Back 77

Conduction

Front 78

Heat transferred through mantle

Back 78

Convection

Front 79

Mountains with lower elevation

Ex: Appalachians

Back 79

Old Mountains

Front 80

Mountains with higher elevation

Ex: Rocky Mountains

Back 80

Young Mountains

Front 81

Flat, oldest part of continent

Ex: Canadian Shield

Back 81

Continental Shield

Front 82

3 Types at Convergent Plate Boundaries:

Ocean-continent, Ocean-Ocean, Continent-Continent

Back 82

Active margins

Front 83

* Oceanic crust and continental crust part of same tectonic plate
* No volcanoes or earthquakes

Back 83

Passive Margins

Front 84

Processes that collectively produce a mountain belt: Folding, Faulting, Magmatism & Metamorphism

Back 84

Orogenesis/Orogeny

Front 85

crustal fragments whose geologic history is distinct from that of the adjoining terranes

Back 85

Terrane

Front 86

The steepest angle at which a pile of unconsolidated sediment remains stable

Back 86

Angle of Repose

Front 87

Controls of ___________=

Size and angularity of sediment particles

How much water is mixed with particles

Friction of surface beneath the pile

Back 87

Controls on Angle of Repose

Front 88

More water = Angle of Repose ________

Less water = Angle of Repose ________

Back 88

Decreases

Increases

Front 89

The freefall of the detached individual pieces of any size

Back 89

Fall

Front 90

The rapid movement of material downslope

Back 90

Slide

Front 91

When material moves downslope as a viscous fluid

Back 91

Flow

Front 92

The material moves downslope as the cohesive unit along a curved surface

Back 92

Slump

Front 93

The material moves downslope along a relatively flat surface inone piece- breaking off

Back 93

Translational

Front 94

The rupture surface is curved then sliding mass rotates as it moves downslope causing a tilt in towards the curved surface

Back 94

Rotational

Front 95

Slow, Stair like

Back 95

Creep

Front 96

Fast, circular deposited area

Back 96

Flow

Front 97

Very fast, snow

Back 97

Avalanche

Front 98

Soil that has been frozen for at least 2 years and is considered to be permanently frozen

Back 98

Permafrost

Front 99

A type of creep in which water saturated soils flow slowly downhill

Typically in area where water cannot escape from the saturated surface layer by infiltrating to deeper layers

Back 99

Solifluction

Front 100

Underwater, downslope movement of unsorted material

Back 100

Turbidity Current

Front 101

Particles of various sizes settle, the heaviest ones sink to the bottom first and the lightest ones sink to the bottom last

Back 101

Graded Bed

Front 102

Turbidity currents, make U shape, major slope decrease

Back 102

Deep-Sea Fan

Front 103

Produced by rivers and streams, major slope decrease

Back 103

Alluvial Fan

Front 104

Latin for sea dark regions, fairly smooth lowlands giant crater later filled by flows younger

Back 104

Origin of Lunar Maria

Front 105

* Earth’s orbit undergoes regular and periodic changes
* These changes alter where and when sunlight reaches different parts of the Earth
* These orbital cycles have a major impact on climate

Back 105

Impact Rates

Front 106

1. Inner Terrestrial Rocky planets
2. Outer Gas Giant planets
3. Distant Kuiper Belt & Oort Cloud Icy objects

Back 106

Major Solar System Groups

Front 107

* Ice caps
* Valley Networks
* Outflow Channels
* Gullies

Back 107

Water on Mars

Front 108

Gain water from the inflow of groundwater through the streambed

Back 108

Gaining Stream

Front 109

Lose water to the groundwater system by outflow through the streambed

Back 109

Losing Stream

Front 110

A elevated aquitard that holds water

Back 110

Perched Water Table

Front 111

When groundwater sits on top of magma chamber

Back 111

Geysers & Hot Springs

Front 112

Drilling a well lower so that the water flows down

Back 112

Cone of Depression

Front 113

When one well is lower than the other so all of the water get drawn to the second one that is drilled

Back 113

Drawdown

Front 114

two plates moving apart, continental rifting (constructive)

Ex: Red Sea

Back 114

Divergent boundary

Front 115

two plates moving together (destructive)

Back 115

Convergent boundary

Front 116

two plates grind past each other

Ex: Earthquakes, San Andreas Fault

Back 116

Transform fault boundary

Front 117

Lithosphere is more dense than the atmosphere

Back 117

Slab pull

Front 118

Ex: Andes Mountains

Boundary/Margin where ocean crust is subducted

Back 118

Ocean-continent boundary example

Front 119

Ex: South Sandwich Islands, Japan

Boundary/Margin where older crust is subducted

Back 119

Ocean-Ocean boundary example

Front 120

Ex: Himalayan Mountains

Boundary/Margin where neither crust is subducted

Back 120

Continent-Continent boundary example

Front 121

32 times as much energy

Back 121

Earthquake Energy Release (Richter)