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136 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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MEDIEVAL SCIENCE
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MEDIEVAL SCIENCE
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What was education in the early middle ages centered on?
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The seven liberal arts
-Trivium: grammar, rhetoric, logic -Quadrivium: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music |
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Though schooling was heavily based on Greek and Roman writings, why were handbooks used rather than the original writings?
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-understanding of geometry and arithmetic was far below what it was in Euclid's time
-people had very little knowledge -needed to dumb it down |
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Where did much of the education occur? Who was it intended for? What was the emphasis?
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-cathedral schools
-future members of the clergy -emphasis on latin, calendar problems, NOT SCIENCE |
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What initial idea hampered the idea of science? How did this view change in Europe by the 12th century?
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-Occasionalism (God can step in between any moment and modify reality --> El-Ghazali etc.)
-Nature was a harmonious, well-ordered and self-sufficient entity that could be investigated by human intellect (God as a clock maker) -the guide must be natural philosophy, not the bible |
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Where did Europeans find new sources of natural philosophy? What did these places become? What other sources were available from the Islamic world?
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-Arab translations of Greek works found in:
-Toledo (captured in 1085) -Sicily (1091) -These places became translation centers -Islamic commentaries, notably Avicenna and Averroes |
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When did universities emerge? What was the curriculum based on? Just as there were guilds of shoemakers and potters, what existed at universities?
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-the 12th century
-based on Aristotle and commentaries on his work -guilds of scholars -described what the duties of the scholars were, limits of the scholar, what he would teach and what he wouldn't teach |
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What does Universitas mean? What does it signify? How did the term change over time?
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-totality or whole
-signified that the guild represented all of the practitioners of the craft -once widely applied to guilds but over time became associated exclusively with guilds of scholars |
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What does Studium generale mean?
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-described the totality of all types of scholars, each with their own universitas
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The universitas and studium generale examples of?
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corporations
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Examples of corporations at the time
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-guilds, firms, cities, states, monasteries, universities
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Characteristics of corporations
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-treated as a single entity
-invested with certain legal rights: "to own property, to have representation in court, to sue and be sued, to be consulted when its interests were affected by the actions of others, especially kings and princes" |
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Who were corporations represented by? What did this representative have power of? Were these powers limited?
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-a single person, who by the 13th century had to be chosen by the consent of the members (in general 2/3)
-had power of attorney in dealing with the corporation's business -powers limited by law (there is an overarching legal system) |
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Where did the development of corporations take place?
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-Mostly southern Europe (France, Italy, England)
-the north was not very developed |
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Each corporation had jurisdiction over the affairs of the corporation. What does this mean? What is the effect of this in European society? Is this the same in other places?
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-it means that each corporation had the right to make rules and regulate its conduct
-EFFECT: there is no single power in European society -this is not the same in places like the Islamic world or China |
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What does the establishment of jurisdictions imply?
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SEPARATION OF CHURCH AND STATE!
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What is the Investiture Controversy (1072-1122)? What did it lay the basis for?
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-the Church insists on its independence from secular authority because it was operating in many different states and states controlled a lot of decision making
-eg. state chose who could be appointed as Bishop -laid the basis for separation of Church and State |
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What other jurisdictions were established separate from the Church?
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-science and learning
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By 1200, where are there universities?
By 1500, what is the state of universities? |
-universities in Bologna, Paris and Oxford
-By 1500: -70 more universities have been created -about 500 students entered the largest universities each year |
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How many faculties were there usually? What were they?
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Four
Arts, law, medicine, theology |
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What degree was required for admission to the other faculties? How did this make all students conversant in science?
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-Bachelor of arts was required
-studied natural philosophy (aristotle etc.) which allowed individuals to become conversant regardless of what their intentions were moving forward |
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What was the early opposition from the Church?
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-in 1215 the Pope banned the reading and teaching of Aristotle at the University of Paris
-in 1277, the Bishop of Paris issued a condemnation of 219 propositions thought to be included in, or implied by, the teaching of the University of Paris |
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What were the Bishop of Paris' major issues with the teachings of the University of Paris?
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-eternity of the world
-doctrine of the double truth -limitation of God's power |
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In the end, what happened?
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Nothing really. If anything it just gave scholars more to argue about. The arts faculty believed that natural philosophy was the correct way to understand the natural world, and fought for its use.
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THE INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF SCIENCE
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THE INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF SCIENCE
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It is often argued that the success of science was a result of the gradual expansion of the "envelope" of knowledge. However, such things as the Copernican revolution are not the causes of science's successes, but rather...
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THEY ARE SCIENCE'S SUCCESSES!
We must look outside of science for the true causes as it is a matter of sociology and the INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF SCIENCE |
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How can we apply this concept of institutionalization to other parts of the world?
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-see quote by Joseph Ben-David about Institutionalization
-Science was allowed to have its own jurisdiction because of corporations and as a result they could make their own rules. These rules acted as positive feedback to encourage science and scientists. This separate jurisdiction was not granted to other cultures. i.e science was NOT INSTITUTIONALIZED in other countries |
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Why did the Arab world lose leadership of science despite early access to Greek knowledge as well as Hindu and Babylonian science?
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-division of the sciences between foreign sciences (natural sciences) and the islamic sciences
-hierarchy of scholarship -Islam stresses obedience and submission to the will of God |
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What were Islamic sciences?
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-study of the Koran, the traditions of the Prophet, legal knowledge, theology, poetry, Arabic language
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Why was there a divide between the traditional sciences and Islamic sciences?
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-the hierarchy of scholarship
-Islam's stressing of obedience and submission to the will of God |
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What was the hierarchy of scholarship in the Islamic world?
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1) Fuqaha/jurists: specialists in Islamic law, based upon the Koran and the traditions of the Prophet.
2) Mutakallimun/dialectical theologians: used the methods of rational argument obtained from the Greeks to elucidate and defend Islam (viewed with suspicion -why?) 3) Philosophers: advocates of the substance and methodology of Greek philosophy |
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How did the stressing of obedience and submission to the will of God influence this hierarchy of scholarship?
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-the jurists were put on top as they helped to define this obedience when the situation was not clear -->all moral, legal and ethical matters were theirs
-dialectical theologians were regarded with suspicion and were sometimes condemned outright since they were adding embellishments that were not needed since the Koran is assumed to encompass everything that one should know -the philosophers were renegades in Islamic society, BUT did become more "in tune" with society over time |
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How was this hierarchy reflected in the structure of the Islamic colleges, the madrasas?
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-the Madrasas were schools of law, and the instruction was centered on the Islamic sciences (essentially jurist training)
-philosophy, the natural sciences, and theology were excluded --> THERE WAS NO ROLE FOR NATURAL PHILOSOPHERS IN THE COLLEGE SYSTEM -however, some jurists were acquainted with natural philosophy and taught students in private in their homes |
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How did natural philosophers survive?
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-They took positions that allowed them to study
ex. a scholar might take a job as a timekeeper (a religious position) in order to study astronomy and mathematics -More frequently, they had patrons who supported them financially and protected them from criticism |
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So from all this, what was the big issue that stopped scientific progress?
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-There was no role for science in Islam/no "neutral spaces" in which it could grow
-In contrast, the West's acceptance of the idea of jurisdictions gave science an opportunity to develop an audience and prove its value |
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How did Christianity and Islam respectively view man and his ability to understand the world? How did this influence what sort of institutions were established?
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Christianity: God endowed man with both intellect and a conscience. The conscious allows people to reach moral judgements and therefore people are expected to grapple with dilemmas and solve them using rationality and conscience.
Islam: the world is too complex for mortals to understand, and therefore the uses of intellect must be carefully circumscribed. Difficult moral problems must be left to the jurists. -Each religion adopted institutions that were appropriate to its theology and one set proved better suited for fostering science |
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The Chinese were _____________ _____________ and a source of ______________.
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technologically innovative, innovation
A lot of the knowledge travelled westward. |
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What are some examples of Chinese innovation that travelled westward?
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-printing and moveable type
-gunpowder |
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How did science develop compared to technology? Give examples.
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Science did not develop as quickly.
ex. Chinese made detailed maps that did not recognize the curvature of the Earth's surface -no significant development in physics -Chinese mathematics focused on computational technique rather than on geometry and the construction of proofs |
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Was there slow development of science due to a lack of knowledge?
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No. They had continuous interaction with the Arabs. They had the knowledge but it just didn't develop.
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Describe Imperial China at the end of the Sung dynasty.
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-emergence of autonomous towns and cities
-properous --> expansion of economic activity and technological progress |
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Who laid the foundations of Chinese thought? What did he study?
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-Chu Hi
-investigated the nature of things (from a Confucian perspective, not natural philosophy) |
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Describe the government.
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-centralized, bureaucratic, autocratic and absolute
-bureaucrats answered only to the Emperor |
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How did the first Sung emperor strategically eliminate his military commanders, who he saw as rivals? What were the objectives of his restructuring?
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-persuaded them to retire and replaced them with literary scholars who served at the pleasure of the emperor
-he personally examined each scholar (beginning of civil service exams) -his objectives: -replace hereditary power and patronage with a system based on merit -solidify hold on power |
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Describe the chain of command in Chinese civil service. This strict chain of command makes evident what trend?
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-District magistrate manages district (combined the rules of judge, financial officer, and sheriff)
-Prefecture was the next level up (had overlapping jurisdictions so no one had a power base) -Roaming officials (Spies) were sent to observe and then inform the emperor on how things were going in each region -censors who had broad powers EVIDENCE OF EXTREME CENTRALIZATION IN CHINA (OPPOSITE OF WHAT IS GOING ON IN EUROPE WITH DECENTRALIZATION) |
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What was one of the few ways for a man to improve his social status?
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THE EXAMINATION SYSTEM
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What were the three stages of the examination system?
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1) passing the district exam and then the prefectural exams made a man a "cultivated talent" [District and prefectural exam --> cultivated talent]
2) passing the provincial exam (offered every 3 years) made him a "recommended man" [Provincial exam --> recommended man] 3) passing the exams in the capital made him a "presented scholar" and ELIGIBLE for a civil service appointment [capital exam -->presented scholar ELIGIBLE for civil service] |
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T/F. The exams were highly stylized and severely judged. It was not uncommon for a scholar to fail the provincial exam a dozen times. A scholar's entire life could be squandered in an attempt to qualify for the civil service.
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sad, but TRUE!
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When did preparation for the exams begin?
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In childhood with the memorization of Confucian classics, calligraphy, and the writing of classical poetry
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Were the children required to understand the texts at first?
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No, simply memorization. After 1787, over 500,000 characters of Confucian text had to be memorized
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Was any person eligible for the civil service exam?
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Technically yes, but most Chinese were illiterate which ruled them out.
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What was the purpose of the national "university" established by the Sung?
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-preparing students for the exam and pretty much just that
-separate schools for medicine, law and mathematics were opened at the end of the 11th century, but closed before the end of the 12th |
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Were there any academies of independent thought?
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There was, but they were replaced by private academies that helped students prepare for exams. If these institutions deviated from curriculum, they were reproved or abolished.
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An evaluation of the examination system
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-recruited the best and brightest into bureaucracy
-potentially allowed for upward mobility (though scholars would almost always need to marry into an elite family in order to be able to be supports during their studies) -absolute uniformity of education, coupled with emphasis on Confucian ethics, hampered science and creativity |
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What were the ultimate virtues of Chinese society at the time? How did the education/examination system reinforce these virtues?
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-Peace and order
-the uniformity ensured an orderly society and discouraged forms of contentiousness/debate, as well as independent scholarship |
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BIG IDEA (WITH CHINA AND INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF SCIENCE)
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-the examination system was almost the only opportunity for advancement, which meant that investigation of science and other disciplines was effectively discouraged
-the examination system prevented the institutionalization of science |
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THE AGE OF EXPLORATION
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THE AGE OF EXPLORATION
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What was the objective of early exploration?
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-reach by sea specific locations of commercial and cultural interest
-they wanted new routes to known lands (weren't interested in empty wilderness or filling in holes in maps) |
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Who could have explored at the time that exploration began?
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-the Europeans
-the Chinese -the Arabs |
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What were the Europeans initial explorations carried out in? Describe them.
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-Caravels
-small ships carrying a combination of square and lateen sails -crew of about 25 -super basic (didn't want to put a lot of money into these) -very seaworthy |
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For how long had the Chinese been trading for? How far did they go?
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-from the time of the Sung
-traded widely, south to the spice islands and west as far as the Malabar coast |
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What is one possible reason that why the Chinese didn't engage in as extensive foreign trade?
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-The Monsoon dictated the times of their voyages since they preferred to sail with the wind behind them
-the Chinese built their ships to sail this way -In the Atlantic, the winds are constantly changing |
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What was a probable reason for the Ming halting sea trade in 1433 and discouraging foreign trade?
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-Grand Canal was in place at the time
-allowed trade between the North and South with travelling on the coast and risking interception by pirates or requiring Navy to defend -big part of Chinese fleet was in fact destroyed |
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What were the Arabs history of sea-faring?
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-they had a long tradition of sailing in both the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean
-carried a large part of the Indian Ocean trade -disliked sailing in the Atlantic -did not go south of Madagascar for fear that the currents would not carry them back |
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Were all three cultures advanced in navigation? How did they differ?
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YES
-the arabs favoured astral navigation -the europeans couldn't since they constantly had to deal with fog and poor weather -used the compass, and near shores they could locate themselves by taking bottom samples |
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Why did the Europeans go and not everyone else?
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-they had the most to gain
-China was a wealthy place and pretty much the centre of the world -the overland route between Europe and China is eventually closed |
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What caused the overland route to close?
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-Mongols gradually convert to Islam and become hostile to Christians
-Mongol rule in Persia collapses -plague in Asia closes the trade routes |
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What is the economic situation in Europe as a result?
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-Lucca still able to produce silk cloth, using raw silk produced in Italy
-the spice trade was more difficult to replace -many items (specifically items from the spice trade) could only be obtained in Alexandria where they were heavily taxed along the caravan route as well as by the Mamluk ruler -running short of gold and silver since there wasn't much gold within Europe anyways and silver production was declining since the mines were being flooded |
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Who did the Europeans rely on to obtain gold? What did they trade for the gold?
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-traded with north Africa who brought the gold across the sahara from sub-sahara Africa
-traded wine, timber for shipbuilding, sometimes ships themselves, Venetian glass beads, copper |
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Who began exploration? Why?
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-the portuguese
-search for arable land-particularly land where sugar could be cultivated -attempted to find the source of African gold (in order to cut out the middle man) |
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Who joins the game next?
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-the Spaniards, then the Dutch, British and French who all do much better than the Portuguese and the Spanish
-read the beginning of lecture 19, just some facts and shizzz |
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What are the economic consequences of the Age of Exploration?
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-exchange of plants and animals (the Columbian exchange) see notes for what went where
-the successful introduction of European plants and animals increases the value of the New World to Europeans -consumer revolution in Europe increase the incentive to work --> industrious revolution -the discovery of new places, new wildlife and new people makes Europeans less narrow-minded, more open to new ideas |
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What came to the new world from Europe?
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-horses, cattle, sheep, pigs, wheat, cotton, sugar cane
- a lot of other species inadvertently -most vegetation in the New world is replaced by European vegetation |
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What came to Europe from the New World?
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maize, tobacco, potato, peanut and sweet potato
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What two major reasons suggest why the New World was so underdeveloped when Europeans reached it?
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1) unable to generate substantial food surpluses
2) relatively small and isolated populations |
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Why were the aboriginals unable to generate substantial food surpluses?
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1) there is only a small percentage of plants that can be domesticated and of the ones that have been, only a dozen contribute 80% of modern crops
-these plants were not distributed equally around the world 2) Eurasia had the fertile crescent |
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Did agriculture appear independently in several parts of the world? How was farming probably discovered?
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Yes
-accidentally -trash piles |
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Why did Eurasians make the switch from hunting to gathering? What was nutrition like after making the switch?
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-cooling of climate shifted migration routes of animals
-farming offset the loss of hunting -nutrition was actually worse, since farming was less efficient |
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What was the most important area for early agriculture?
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THE FERTILE CRESCENT (JORDAN, SYRIA, IRAQ)
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Why was the Fertile Crescent so prosperous?
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-favoured by natural selection
-climate of mild, wet winters and long, hot, dry summers -favoured plants that left a lot of (edible) seeds and then lay dormant until the winter rains (annual plants) -i.e. this particular climate supports lots of wild plants that make for good eating -the plants that surrounded them were easily domesticated and self-pollinated (wheat and barely) and had high protein content |
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Why is self-pollination a good thing for farmers?
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Self-pollination means that selected characteristics are retained rather than lost, making selection super effective!
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How did the orientation of Europe help domesticated crops spread rapidly?
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The east-west orientation of Europe meant that across much of the landmass the climate is similar and therefore the crops could work well across Europe
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What factors worked against North American farming?
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-corn was the leading crop of North America, but its early ancestors were much less productive in the wild
-North America has north-south orientation, with many natural barriers (mountains or deserts) that separate it into isolated regions making transfer of crops slow -Mexican crops that could provide complementary proteins arrive late ESSENTIALLY, GREAT CLIMATE BUT NOTHING REALLY TO WORK WITH TIL LATE COMPARED TO EURASIA |
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In regards to animals, how did Eurasia compare to North America?
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-successfully domesticated large mammals are almost exclusively of Eurasian origin
-all animals that are globally and/or locally important today came from places that Eurasians could access |
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Besides an unequal distribution of species geographically, what else put the Americas at a disadvantage?
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-they hunted many large mammals to extinction
-not only fewer candidates but a lower rate of conversion |
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What do you need to have going for you if you want to domesticate an animal?
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-must be herbivore
-must grow quickly -must be willing to breed in captivity -mild disposition -no tendency to panic -must have right social structure |
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How were the regions of America isolated? How did this isolation affect technological progress?
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-isolated by the melting of the ice caps into 5 regions
-the regions were reunited by world exploration in about 1500 -technological progress occurs when there is exchange among a large population of people -the larger the population, the faster the progress -the more isolated the region, the less their technology progressed |
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Vassal
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bound by mutual obligation to a member of the upper class
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pawn
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temporarily enslaved to guarantee an agreement
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indentured servant
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-contractually bound to a period of enslavement, but free again at the end of the contract
-received land or money at the end of the contract |
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serf
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-bound to a master
-had limited freedoms -could own property -could be members of a church or village |
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slaves
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-bound to their masters
-not members of the community in which they lived -varied conditions |
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What % of Western Africa were enslaved during the 16th century?
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between 33-50%
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Was slavery identical everywhere? If not, what was the range of severity?
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-conditions varied from place to place
-least severe: slaves treated as family members -most severe: excess slaves were killed annually |
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What were three major causes of African slavery?
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-warfare/abduction
-indebtedness -judicial decision |
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Where were slaves taken during the Atlantic Slave Trade needed? What were the first African slaves taken by Europeans used as?
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-needed labour to work on the plantations of the New World
-first slaves used as household servants and as general labourers |
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What caused the scale of European slave trade to rise dramatically? Why?
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-it rose when sugar production rose
-capital and labour intensive |
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Where did some of the first slaves go to? Why?
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-Portuguese sugar production in the Madeiras
-they originally captured the aboriginals but they did not work as slaves -next they tried indentured servants, orphans and convicts from Europe but when they needed even more labour, they turned to slaves |
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How did the Portuguese get thses slaves? What did they provide in exchange?
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-traded with African coastal rulers
-raiding etc. was too risky due to foreign diseases, plants, animals, tribes etc. -traded in kind (Asian textiles, European tools and firearms, alcohol and later tobacco) |
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When were the first slaves taken? What was organized by 1500?
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-1450
-slave trade, with trading posts on the African mainland |
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The Portuguese monopolized the slave trade until 1637 when other parties intruded, notably Britain and the Netherlands (who were much better at this shiz). When and where had the first slaves been sent to?
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in 1538, the Portuguese sent slaves to Brazil to work on sugar plantations
Brazil would ultimately import 40% of all slaves shipped across the Atlantic |
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In 1625, Portuguese sugar-growing practices and slavery were introduced to the British West Indies. Why?
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-power struggle in Brazil caused many plantation owners to flee and end up in the West Indies
-brought their trade knowledge and techniques -labour initially provided by indentured slaves -slaves came around 1660 |
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What are other plantation crops?
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-tobacco
-coffee -cotton -indigo |
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When did slaves become important in America?
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-not until around 1750 when black slaves began to outnumber white indentured servants
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How does it all end?
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-Britain declares the slave trade illegal in 1807, the US in 1808
-other Euro countries follow thier lead by 1850 -Brazil is the last country to abolish the slave trade in 1867 -slavery itself is abolished in Britain in 1838, and in the US 1865 (before it was just the trading) |
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What is Eric Williams (author of Capitalism and Slavery, and first PM of T&T) thesis?
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-argues slavery financed the Industrial Revolution
-also argues that the British abolished the slave trade for economic reasons (comp. with French) |
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What are the two extreme positions on slavery financing the Industrial Revolution?
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1) Britain would not have been able to industrialize in the absence of slavery
2) Britain would've done just fine without slavery or the New World |
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What was the average rate of return on a voyage?
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5% = SHIT ALL with big variance in returns
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Why did the Dutch presumably give up slave trading early?
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-lack of profits most likely
-not because they're nice dudes |
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The British earned a return of nearly 10% (which was thought to be good), however why is this still not a extremely supportive argument of Williams' thesis?
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-the slave trade accounted for only 3% (by tonnage) of British shipping
-if slave trading didn;t go down, the Brits would only have been smaller by 3% |
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Why is American slavery not an issue when determining if slavery financed the Industrial Revolution?
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-american cotton become important to the British until after 1800, when the first IR is almost over
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What about slavery on the Carribbean sugar plantations (these occurred at a time in which it would be possible for these to finance the Industrial Revolution)?
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-profits were 1/2 to 1% of GNP (similar profits were earned in other industries)
-not excess profits to finance the IR since most were either reinvested or spent on consumption -the absence of slavery would not mean the disappearance of the profits (could've found labour elsewhere) -if not the sugar industry, the capital would've gone somewhere else to an equally profitable industry |
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What other aspects of the plantation system could the IR have gained from?
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-an important market for British goods
-a source of cheap raw materials -as a trigger to the IR due to heavy mechanization etc. |
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Why are each of these implausible?
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-the only significant British holding at the time of the IR was Barbados which had the popn of a large British town --> probably not going to contribute a lot to GNP
-sugar is good, but the main raw materials that the British were interested in was cotton (After 1800) -although there was some technological progress in sugar production, it was not a breakthrough industry |
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Social Change in Europe
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-Read over notes
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What did Charles I attempt to do in England? What forced him to change?
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-attempted to rule as an absolute monarch and refused to call Parliament into session
-the Scottish rebellion of 1640 forced him to call parliament into session to get some skrill to fight those Scottish brutes |
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Who was the civil war in England between? Who won? What happened?
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-between the king (the Cavaliers) and the political opposition led by the Puritans (the Roundheads, Oliver Cromwell)
-The Puritans win and execute the King and abolish the monarchy and the House of Lords -Cromwell rules England until his death in 1658 |
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What happens after Cromwell's death?
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-the monarchy is restored and Stuart Kings (Charles II and James II) rule again
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What is the connection between Louis XIV and James II?
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-both are catholic and wish to rule with absolute power
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What did Louis XIV do in 1685? why? What else did Louis XIV hope to do?
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-revokes the Edict of Nantes which granted tolerance to Protestants (as a result 100,000 flee and the remainder are prosecuted heavily)
-he wanted a purely Catholic country and the unification of the church -he also hoped to augment his territory by invading the Netherlands and Germany (both are protestant) |
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After Charles II dies, what does James II attempt to do?
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-install Catholics in positions of power, abolish parliament and rule as an absolute dictator
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How do the Dutch and English respond to James II attempt at absolute power? What are their respective reasons for doing so?
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-the Dutch and the English engineer the replacement of James II with William of Orange (son-in law of James II)
-the English don't want the return of Catholicism or an absolute monarchy -the Dutch don't want a Catholic alliance between Louis XIV and James II (or they would have the combined military power to invade Netherlands) |
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What's good about this replacement?
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-The Dutch are tolerant, democratic and Protestant (not allegiant to the Pope)
-they are also progressive in science -the English adopt these qualities |
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The Enlightenment "The Age of Reason"
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-response to the absolutism of Louis XIV and James II
-natural light of reason can discern the truth and rid the world of bigotry, intolerance, superstition, etc. -the scientific method of observation and deduction is applied to human affairs -moral philosophy based on what is good for humanity -government requires consent of the people and checks and balances must be put in place to control |
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TECHNOLOGY
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Where did clock making originate? What is it primarily used as? Why was clock making abandoned?
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-China during the Sung dynasty
-primarily an astronomical device (more a calendar than a clock) -the Emperor was the only one who was supposed to have astronomical knowledge and therefore the knowledge of clocks wasn't passed to the general public and therefore not to industry (no innovation) |
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Clockwork was well known, from the Greeks, and the Arabs, but these were just adjusted by hand. When and where was the first mechanical clock powered by weights?
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-Europe in the late 1200s
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What was the key problem? What was the solution? What was a major benefit of weights as opposed to wind and water as a source of power for clocks?
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-key problem was how to control the fall of the weights (how do you drag out the length that the weights fall for? how do you make sure it falls at a uniform speed?)
-Solution: verge and foliot (alternately stops and releases the weight as it falls) -weights could provide power almost anywhere |
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How did the clock spur technological progress?
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-involved complex design issues and required precise construction
-developed skills needed for industrial machinery (automatic gear cutting and screw-cutting machinery, the pendulum, the spring) NOTE: the drive to produce smaller watches required ever more exact production methods |
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What were the social consequences of the clock?
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-since clock making was too primitive to have a difference between night hours and day hours, they began measuring time in absolute/fixed units
-speed and acceleration become measurable for the first time -by 1330 clocks are used to regulate urban life and commercial activity |
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How did architecture and design change in the 15th century?
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-architects and shipbuilders begin to use scale drawings and scale models to guide construction
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Europeans begin solving complex problems by reducing them to simple components. Give examples:
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-Maurice of Nassau reduces the movements involved in loading a musket to 42 separate steps
-William Petty maps Ireland in 1650 by reducing the problem to a number of very simple components, so that unskilled labour can help -the movements of spinner's hands and fingers are analyzed in order to develop mimic machinery -THE REGIMENTATION OF UNSKILLED LABOUR LAYS THE BASIS OF THE FACTORY SYSTEM -Galileo and the strength of a beam |
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Where was the printing press and moveable type developed? What was there impact?
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-China
-did not have the same impact as they did in the West since Chinese for two major reasons -Confucianism encouraged peace and order and discouraged debate, which led the printing press to be used strictly as a device for ensuring order and therefore printed only Classics, pamphlets from the govt etc. -movable type wasn't much help since the Chinese use ideograms rather than a small alphabet |
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What about the Islamic world?
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-was not very influential in the Islamic world --> not adopted until the 1720s, when Isaac Newton was already an old man
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Why was it adopted so late in the Islamic world?
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-due to the way knowledge was transmitted there
-Koran does not provide much guidance on day-to-day issues -relied on teachings by Mohammed (the hadiths or traditions) -used lineages to establish credibility -scholars mimicked this approach (scholars would publish new works by dictating them to their students and then sign each copy) -printing was free of lineage since all copies looked the same --> believed this made printing unacceptable |
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How was it adopted in the West? What did it play major roles in?
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-enthusiastically adopted
-the Reformation and the intellectual revolutions of the West (see notes for some important details) |
