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64 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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what do RD + DD both do |
Both protect concept of majority rule although RD includes more safeguards for minorities |
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what does RD entail |
-citizens elect reps to make decisions -elections for reps are free+ fair -citizens delegate authority to reps |
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what does DD entail |
-not elective -citizens have more active role in decision making |
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Advantages of DD |
Gives equal weight to all votes, unlike a representative system where the varying sizes of constituencies mean that votes do not all have equal value.
Encourages popular participation in politics by expecting people to take their duties as citizens seriously. Removes the need for trusted representatives, as people can take responsibility for their own decisions. Develops a sense of community and encourages genuine debate.
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Disadvantages of DD |
Impractical in a large, heavily populated modern state where decision-making is complicated.
Many people will not want to – or feel qualified to – take part in decision-making, so political activists decide what happens Open to manipulation by the cleverest and most articulate speakers, who will persuade people to support their viewpoint. Will of the majority is not mediated by parliamentary institutions, so minority viewpoints are disregarded. |
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Advantages of RD |
The only practical system in a large modern state, where issues are complex and often need rapid response (e.g. deployment of troops)
Reduces chances of minority rights being overridden by ‘tyranny of the majority’ Politicians form parties, bringing coherence and giving people a real choice of representative. Pressure groups form to represent different interests, promoting debate and encouraging pluralist democracy. Elections allow people to hold representatives to account. |
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Disadvantages of RD |
May lead to reduced participation as people choose to hand responsibility to politicians
Parties and pressure groups are often run by elites pursuing their own agendas, not truly representing the people Minorities may still find themselves underrepresented as politicians are more likely to follow the views of the majority to secure election. Politicians may be corrupt and incompetent, may betray election promises or put loyalty to their party before responsibility to the electorate. |
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instances of DD being used in representative system |
National referendums A referendum is a direct vote on a single issue, usually requiring a response to a straight yes/no question
2015 Recall of MPs Act |
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Representative Democracy minorities underrepresented stats in HoC |
2017- 45/650 MPs = LGBT - 40% increase from 2015 52/650= ethnic minority 208/650= female (191 in 2015) |
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RD being corrupt/ incompetent |
May's gov. conservative manifesto ='We need to deliver a smooth + orderly departure from the EU' |
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examples of national referendums |
-uk membership 1975 -devolution 2004 -uk EU membership 2016 11 since 1973 - most related to the issue of devolution |
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The 2015 Recall of MPs Ac
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This allows a petition to be triggered if an MP is sentenced to be imprisoned or is suspended from the House of Commons for more than 21 days. If 10 per cent of eligible voters in the constituency sign the petition, a by-election is called. Direct democracy is thus used to hold representatives to account
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UK system positive features |
-Devolved government -independent judiciary -Free and fair elections -Free media -Wide range of political parties and pressure groups |
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however some argue 'democratic deficiet' in important respects- what? |
- Underrepresentation of minority viewpoints due to the voting system The House of Commons is elected by the ‘first-past-the-post’ system, which produces a mismatch between the votes cast for UK political parties and the seats that each party wins in Parliament -House of Lords lacks democratic legitimacy -Lack of protection for citizens’ rights The European Convention on Human Rights, incorporated into UK law in 1998 (the Human Rights Act), arguably provides inadequate guarantees for the rights of citizens in their relationship with the state. Governments can ‘derogate from’ (suspend) articles of the Human Rights Act in certain situations -Control of sections of the media by wealthy, unaccountable business interests For example, the powerful Murdoch group has owned a number of British newspapers simultaneously, including The Times, The Sunday Times and The Sun |
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why do some argue participation crisis |
widely held belief that the UK’s democratic system suffers due to a lack of engagement with the political system among a significant section of the population.
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voter turnout |
Falling turnout is important because it means that governments are elected on a reduced share of the popular vote, thus calling the strength of their mandate into question.
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stats for turnout |
The average turnout at general elections from 1945 to 1997 was 76 per cent
2001 was the lowest since the end of the First World War in 1918. There has been a modest recovery at the last two general elections, although it is still some way from the levels seen at most post-war contests- 2017 = 68.8 % Turnout is even lower, as a rule, in so-called ‘second order’ elections, such as those for the devolved bodies in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland |
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party membership whole of UK |
This is another indicator of a participation crisis. Only 1.6 per cent of the electorate now belongs to one of the three main UK-wide political parties, whereas in 1983 the figure was 3.8 per cent
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referendum turnout |
45% until scottish referendum= 85% brexit = 72.2% |
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conservative membership |
just under 150,000 members by 2016, a significant drop from an estimated 400,000 in the mid-1990
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labour party membership |
increased in the run-up to the 1997 election but fell while the party was in government to around 190,000 members. The election of Jeremy Corbyn as leader has been associated with a remarkable increase in membership, with a total of 515,000 by July 2016.
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libdem membership |
70,000 members in the early 2000s, falling to 49,000 during the 2010–15 coalition with the Conservatives. In 2016, they had recovered to about 76,000 members
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less formal ways of participation |
pressure groups social media |
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pressure group - participation |
single issues such as the environment, has been increasing. The last two decades have seen numerous well-attended demonstrations on issues as diverse as fuel prices, the Iraq War, fox hunting and student tuition fees. Direct action has become a recognised feature of modern politics, indicating that people may be turning to new methods
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social media- participation |
social media has enabled people, especially the young, to exchange political views and participate in online campaigns on particular issues, without engaging in the real world. An example of e-democracy is support for e-petitions, which allow people to register a viewpoint online. An e-petition on the Downing Street website in 2007, against proposals for road-charging, was signed by 1.8 million people
revoke brexit = 6 mill signatures |
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political apathy |
rise of new forms of political engagement may be seen as a positive development, but it is still a cause for concern that so many people are uninvolved in traditional politics. One explanation is political apathy: a lack of interest or awareness of contemporary events and political issues that affect society. An alternative version of this is known as ‘hapathy’ – a blend of the words ‘happiness’ and ‘apathy’, meaning that people are generally contented and see no need to push for political change
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negative public perception of politicians in recent decades
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dishonest behaviour by MPs and broken electoral promises, together with a general sense that voting does not change anything, have reduced levels of trust in democratic politics
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2009 parliamentary expenses scandal |
2009 The Daily Telegraph published evidence of widespread abuse of the system that allowed MPs to claim expenses for living costs. The affair dragged in MPs from across the political spectrum, leading to a number of apologies, forced repayments and decisions not to contest seats at the next general election. Five former MPs and two members of the House of Lords were sentenced to prison terms. Although steps have been taken to regulate the expenses system, this does not seem to have fundamentally altered popular perceptions. A 2015 survey by market research company Ipsos MORI found that politicians were the profession least trusted by the public, below estate agents, journalists and bankers.
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what can be done to reform the system |
• changing the day for elections from Thursday to the weekend, as in mainland Europe
allowing people to vote anywhere in their constituency, rather than insisting on attendance at a particular polling station allowing voting to take place over several days. encourage wider use of postal voting and e-voting |
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postal voting and e-voting |
These methods are open to questions about security. When all-postal ballots were trialled in four regions at the 2004 European Parliament elections, there were complaints of an increase in electoral fraud, including multiple voting and intimidation. Voters also disliked being deprived of other means of voting. E-voting is open to problems arising from cyber attack and the possibility of online impersonation of voters. The need to access technology may also discriminate against older people
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voting age + compulsory voting |
voting age be reduced from 18 to 16, which was allowed in the 2014 Scottish referendum, but is still not the practice in UK elections.
Another radical proposal is to make voting compulsory. This is the practice in certain countries, including Belgium and Australia, where failure to turn up at the polling station attracts a small fine. |
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arguments for compulsory voting |
Voting is a social duty as well as a right; people should be engaged in the processes that affect their lives.
It would produce a Parliament that is more representative of the population as a whole Politicians would have to run better quality campaigns, and governments would have to frame their policies with the whole electorate in mind. |
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arguments against compulsory voting |
In a preferential voting system, where voters number candidates in order, compulsory voting might lead to participants simply placing candidates in rank order (1,2,3 or 3,2,1
It is undemocratic to force people to take part in something that should be a matter of choice. It would not stop politicians focusing their campaigning on marginal seats, and neglecting safe seats where the outcome is predictable |
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broader reforms for UK democratic system |
Changing the electoral system for Westminster to one based on proportional representation, so that it more accurately reflects voters’ preferences. People who wish to vote for a minority party might then feel that there is more chance of their viewpoint being represented.
Further reform of Parliament, to make its processes more democratic and transparent, and enabling it to bring governments more effectively to account for their actions. The transfer of more government powers and functions to local bodies – for example, devolving power to the English regions or to an English parliament |
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extend franchise to 16 |
16 and 17 year olds were allowed to vote in the Scottish independence referendum in 2014, and the Scottish Parliament voted the following year to allow them to take part in its own elections. At UK level, by the time of the 2015 general election, all major parties except the Conservatives were in favour of extending the precedent. The Electoral Reform Society also supports votes at 16.
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what are pressure groups |
differ from political parties in that they do not usually enter their own candidates at elections, and do not seek to exercise power themselves. Rather they seek to influence the government (or another authority) to adopt their idea
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types of pressure groups |
Sectional groups (or interest groups
Cause groups (or promotional groups) Social movements |
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Sectional groups (or interest groups
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eek to promote the interests of an occupation or another group in society. For example, trade unions represent their members in negotiations with employers over wages and working conditions. Membership of a sectional group is usually restricted to people who meet specific requirements, such as professional qualifications in a particular field. For example, the Law Society is open to solicitors in England and Wales
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Cause groups (or promotional groups)
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focused on achieving a particular goal or drawing attention to an issue or group of related issues. Membership is usually open to anyone who sympathises with their aims. For example, Greenpeace promotes awareness of environmental concerns and tries to influence the government to adopt ‘green’ causes. A special category of cause group is one that promotes the interests of a group in society – usually one that cannot stand up for itself. Members do not belong to the social group for which they campaign. For example, most members of the housing charity Shelter are not themselves homeless
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Social movements
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similar to cause groups but are more loosely structured. Some participants may also belong to more traditional pressure groups, while others are simply moved to take part in a specific protest. Social movements are usually politically radical and seek to achieve a single objective. For example, the ‘Camps for Climate Action’ were created for short periods in 2007–10 to protest against the expansion of Heathrow airport
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2 different kinds of groups |
insider / outside |
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insider groups |
rely on contacts with ministers and civil servants to get their way. Some, like the National Union of Farmers, have close links with the relevant government department (in this case, DEFRA). Insider groups tend to have objectives that are broadly in line with the views of the government, increasing their leverage. Insider groups are also sub-divided into low- and high-profile groups. Low-profile groups, such as the Howard League for prison reform, rely on discreet behind the scenes contacts rather than seeking publicity. High-profile groups, such as the Confederation of British Industry (CBI), supplement their lobbying with use of the media to make their case.
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outsider groups |
are not consulted by the government. Their objectives may be so far outside the political mainstream (for example, animal rights protestors who try to intimidate animal testing laboratories into ceasing their work) that the government is unlikely to enter into dialogue with them. Alternatively, an outsider group may wish to preserve its independence and reputation for ideological purity by keeping government at a distance. For example, the ‘Occupy’ movement, which organised sit-ins in late 2011
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pressure groups methods - insider |
choice of methods will be determined largely by the resources available and by its status as an insider or outsider group. Insider groups tend to negotiate quietly behind the scenes, using their private contacts in Whitehall. They may even be given the opportunity to offer their views on draft legislation. Organisations such as the National Farmers Union are able to offer the government the benefit of their specialised knowledge in return for influence over policy. Pressure groups may also lobby MPs, briefing them on issues of concern or giving evidence to committees. Lawyers acting for the human rights group, Liberty, have done this in order to put their views across on counter-terrorism policies that affect people’s civil liberties
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pressure groups methods- outsider |
typically resort to less discreet methods to draw attention to their concerns. Lacking contacts within government, they may try to exercise influence through email campaigns and petitions, or staging demonstrations and publicity stunts. Members of the pressure group Black Lives Matter UK, for example, obstructed flights at London City Airport in September 2016 to draw attention to their claim that ethnic minorities are disproportionately affected by pollution
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combination of insider + outsider |
depends on the nature of the issue and the degree to which the government is willing to respond. The British Medical Association (BMA) usually enjoys insider status but, faced with the Conservative government’s determination to impose a new contract on junior doctors, it indicated its support for strike action in the autumn of 2016 – a classic outsider group tactic. It later called off support for more extended strikes in response to concerns about patient safety.
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influence of pressure groups |
depends on the climate of public opinion and the willingness of the government to make concessions. Access to effective methods of communication is another factor that may promote success. An example is the dramatic sequence of events that followed a period of rising petrol prices in September 2000.The UK economy almost ground to a halt when road hauliers and farmers spearheaded a movement to blockade oil refineries, in a bid to get the government to reduce the tax on fuel. These activists had considerable leverage and made use of mobile phones to assemble their supporters rapidly, with little warning. They also enjoyed widespread public approval
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factors in deciding the effectiveness of pressure groups |
-resources -tactics/ leadership -public support -gov attitudes |
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pressure group- resources |
large membership who pay subscriptions means that a group is likely to have the financial resources to run offices, pay permanent staff and organise publicity. For example, the RSPCA employs about 1600 people, supported by thousands of volunteers, and can afford to take out full-page advertisements in national newspapers. The size of a pressure group’s membership can also be important in persuading government that it reflects a significant section of public opinion.
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pressure group- tactics/ leadership |
Experienced, capable leadership is vital to success. For example, the RSPCA played a key role in securing the ban on hunting with dogs in 2004 by collaborating with two similar groups, the League against Cruel Sports and the International Fund for Animal Welfare, so that they were not competing with each other. Another key to success is knowing which ‘access points’ in the UK political system to target – the points at which a group can apply pressure.
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pressure groups- public support |
Pressure groups whose agenda is in step with public opinion are usually more successful than those whose objectives fail to engage it, or whose methods alienate potential sympathisers. The Snowdrop campaign to ban the use of handguns was successful largely because of public reaction to the 1996 Dunblane primary school massacre, when a gunman killed 16 children and their teacher. Favourable media coverage can play an important role in winning support, as can the involvement of a well-known personality
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pressure groups- government attitudes |
nsider contacts with government ministers and civil servants are often a key to success. The National Farmers Union’s links to DEFRA were instrumental in bringing about the 2013 badger cull
Government will usually listen to the groups on which it relies for specialist knowledge of a policy area, and with whose agenda it can see some common ground |
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pressure group case study BMA ban on smoking in cars with children |
When the BMA first made its case in November 2011, on the grounds that passive smoking is particularly harmful in a confined space
The BMA used online technology to lobby for support, providing its members with a web-based form to personalise and send to their MPs. It also made its case to members of the House of Lords. A Labour peer introduced an amendment to the 2014 Children and Families Bill, which was passed by the Lords and later accepted by the Commons. The ban came into force in October 2015 |
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thinktanks - other collective organistaion + groups |
groups of experts from different backgrounds who are brought together to investigate particular topics and to offer solutions to complicated economic, social or political issues
alternative source of ideas to the civil service, with more time and expertise than political parties to carry out researc |
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thinktanks however |
However, in government it is necessary to make compromises, so the less politically practical ideas dreamed up by think tanks are often ignored. The work of think tanks is often said to lack the academic rigour expected in university circles.
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lobbyists |
members of professional organisations who are paid by clients seeking access to government, or to MPs and members of the House of Lords. Their purpose is to gain influence on behalf of their clients, particularly when legislation that affects their clients’ interests is under consideration
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concern over lobbying |
lobbying system for many years was expected to regulate itself, with lobbyists being allowed to decide whether or not their names appeared on a public register. In 2014 the government made it a legal requirement for anyone lobbying on behalf of a third party to register if their activities include discussing policy, legislation or government contracts with a minister or senior civil servant.
Lobbying remains big business in the UK, employing an estimated 4000 people, and a total of £2 billion is spent on it each year. How much influence lobbying really has over government is uncertain. Under David Cameron, Number 10 denied that lobbying firms changed government policy, but stated that companies frequently discuss their concerns with the Business Department or the Treasury |
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Corporations
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The role of corporations, or large business organisations, in UK government circles is a related area of concern for some pro-democracy campaigners. There has also been discussion of the so-called ‘revolving door’ process, where senior politicians and officials take well-paid jobs in the private sector after they leave government service.
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human rights act + equality act |
In 1998 the New Labour government passed the Human Rights Act, which incorporated the Convention into UK law with effect from 2000. These rights – including the right to life, the prohibition of torture or degrading treatment, freedom from arbitrary arrest, the right to a fair trial and rights to privacy and family life– could now be defended in UK courts without having to go to Strasbourg.
The Equality Act (2010) brought together earlier pieces of legislation that had sought to outlaw discrimination and unfair treatment, such as the 1970 Equal Pay Act, the 1975 Sex Discrimination Act and the 1976 Race Relations Act. It identified nine ‘protected characteristics’: age, disability, gender reassignment, marriage or civil partnership, pregnancy and maternity, race, religion or belief, sex, and sexual orientation. It made it illegal for public bodies, employers, service providers and other organisations and individuals to discriminate against people on any of these grounds, in the workplace or in wider society |
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Debates over the extent, limits and tensions within the UK’s rights-based culture
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One indicator of the growing prominence of rights has been an increased use of judicial review. The number of reviews rose from around 4240 in 2000 to around 15,600 by 2013. Examples of successful challenges to government policies include High Court rulings that retired Gurkha soldiers should be allowed to settle in the UK (2008)
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defenders of judicial review |
say that judicial review is a vital means of defending citizens’ rights, enabling the legality of government actions to be properly scrutinised; its critics argue that it places too much power in the hands of unelected and unaccountable judge
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against judicial review |
. Judges have been accused of effectively creating a privacy law through the way they have interpreted the Human Rights Act. In a series of high-profile court cases, they appeared to give priority to Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights (the right to privacy) over Article 10 (the right to freedom of expression), as claimed by the press. This occurred even though specific legislation on the subject had not been passed by Parliament, and it was not explicitly covered by common law. It seemed that wealthy individuals, who could afford to take legal action, had an unfair advantage. For example, in 2008 the High Court awarded Max Mosley, the head of the Formula 1 motor racing organisation, substantial damages when the News of the World published a story about his sex life, which he argued had breached his privacy.
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conservatives and HRA |
a more serious fault of the Human Rights Act is the way that it seems to show favour to undeserving individuals, rather than protecting the legitimate freedoms of UK citizens. The Conservatives have argued for many years for the replacement of the act with a new ‘British Bill of Rights’, which would establish the supremacy of British courts over the European Court of Human Rights
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case study -case of Abu Qatada+ HRA |
illustrates the frustration caused by the way in which the Human Rights Act was implemented.
a radical Muslim cleric living in London since the 1990s, had made speeches justifying the use of violence to promote the Islamist cause and had served time in British jails. The security services regarded him as a threat and ministers wanted to deport him to his country of origin, Jordan, where he was wanted for trial. However, his legal advisers were able to fight deportation for eight years on the grounds that he might be tried using evidence obtained under torture, a breach of the Human Rights Act. |
