Critical Thinking Chapter 1

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May be defined as an organized body of knowledge, or science, that evaluates arguments.

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Logic

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Develop a system of methods and principles that we may have as criteria for evaluating the arguments of others and as guides in constructing arguments of our own.

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What does Logic aim to do

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A group of statements, one or more of which (the premises) are claimed to provide support for, or reasons to believe, one of the others (the conclusion)

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Argument

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Premises do support the conclusion, and premises do not support the conclusion.

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Two basic groups an argument can fall under.

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The purpose of logic is

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To develop methods and techniques that allow us to distinguish good arguments from bad

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A sentence that is either true or false.

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Statement

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Truth and falsity of a statement

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Truth values

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Example: the truth value of "chocolate truffles are loaded with calories" is true, while the truth value of "no wives ever cheat on their husbands" is false.

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Usually not classified as statements and don't have truth values.

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Questions, proposals, suggestions, commands, or exclamations.

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The statements in a argument are compiled of one or more premises and exactly one conclusion

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Note

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Statements that set forth reasons or evidence.

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Premises

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The statement that the evidence is claimed to support or imply

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Conclusion

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Example of an argument

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All film starts are celebrities (premise). Halle Berry is a film star (premise). Therefore, Halle Berry is a celebrity (conclusion).

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Conclusions are indicated by the word

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Therefore

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Conclusion indicators

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Therefore, wherefore, thus, consequently, we may infer, accordingly, we may conclude, it must be that, for this reason, so, entails that, hence, it follows that, implies that, as a result

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Premise indicators

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Since, as indicated by, because, for, in that, may be inferred from, as, given that, seeing that, for the reasons that, inasmuch as, owing to

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According to logical principles, the conclusion is always listed after the premises.

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Note

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When reconstructing arguments...

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Remain as close as possible to the original version.

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Statements in which the various components are all claimed to be true.

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Compound arrangement

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Statements that should not be taken as part of the argument.

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Passing comment and introduction to topics.

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The reasoning process expressed by an argument

*Interchangable with "argument"

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Inference

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The meaning of a statement

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Proposition

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The Father of Logic

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Aristotle

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Fundamental elements are term, and arguments are good or bad based on how the terms are arranged.

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Syllogistic Logic

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Involves concepts such as possibility, necessity, belief, and doubt.

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Modal Logic

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Physician Galen developed theory of the compound categorical syllogism.

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Note

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Chrysippus develop a logic in which fundamental elements where whole propositions

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Note

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The first major logician of the middle ages.

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Peter Abelard

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The first original contributions of logic in the middle ages logic were made by William of Ockham

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Note

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A higher level of language hsed to discuss linguistic entitled such as words, terms, and propositions.

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Metalanguage

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What is needed by a passage to contain any argument:

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At least one statement must claim to present evidence (premise), and there must be a claim that something is supported by the evidence (conclusion).

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Usually asserted by premise or conclusion indicator words (thus, since, because, hence, therefore).

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Explicit Claim

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Claim that exists if there is an inferential relationship between the statements in the passage, but contains no indicator words.

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Implicit Claim

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Simple noninferential passages, expository passages, illustrations, explanations, and conditional statements are...

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Kinds of nonarguments

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Unproblematic passages; lack a claim that anything is being proved. Includes warning, pieces of advice, statements, belief or opinion, loosely associated statements, and reports.

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Simple Noninferential Passages

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A form of expression that is intended to put someone on guard against a dangerous or detrimental situation.

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Warning

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A form of expression that makes a recommendation about some future decision or course of conduct.

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Piece of advice

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An expression about what someone believes or thinks

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Statement of belief (opinion)

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May be about the general subject, but lack claim that one of then is proved by others.

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Loosely associated statements

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Consists of a group of statements that convey information about some topic or event.

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Report

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A kind of disclosure that begins with a topic sentence followed by one or more sentences that develop the topic sentence

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Expository Passage

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An expression involving one or more examples that is intended to show what something means or how it is done.

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Illustration

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An expression that purports to shed light on some events or phenomena.

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Explanation

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The statement that describes the event or phenomena.

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Explanandum

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The statement or group of statements that purports to be explained.

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Explanans

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If/then statement; cause and effect.

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Conditional Statement

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The "if" of a conditional statement

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Antecendent

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The "then" of a conditional statement

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Consequent

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A sufficient condition for some state of affairs S is a condition that, if satisfied, guarantees that S obtains.

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For example, a sufficient condition for getting an A in 341 is getting an A on every piece of graded work in the course. This means that if a student gets an A on every piece of graded work in the course, then the student gets an A.

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A necessary condition for some state of affairs S is a condition that must be satisfied in order for S to obtain.

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For example, a necessary condition for getting an A in 341 is that a student hand in a term paper. This means that if a student does not hand in a term paper, then a student will not get an A, or, equivalently, if a student gets an A, then a student hands in a term paper.