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97 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Evaluating Theories
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o Theoretical scope-being able to explain in others concepts
o Appropriateness-does it help to explain? o Reflectiveness-does it cause you to think more about concept? o Validity- has it been tested/evaluated? o Simplicity- does it make sense? o Openness- does the theory cooperate with others and make sense? |
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Phonetics
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Phonetics – Language as Sound in human speech or natural languages
o Based on Phoneme o Acoustic Phonetics (Production)- using vocal cords o Auditory Phonetics (Reception)- how sound waves travel/ give meaning |
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Phonology
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• Phonology- study of how sound units are organized and used in natural language
o Phonemes (spoken)- meaningful units of sound that are/can be put together |
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Morphology and Morpheme
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• Morphology – Language as internal structure of words
o Morpheme – smallest meaningful unit in a grammar of language • Does not =syllable or word, broken down to root words • Root/Free – cannot be split into smaller units and can occur along • Stem morphemes which can exist alone (sink, lid, flower) • Bound – always occurs with another morpheme • Affixes include Prefix, Suffix, and Infix o Bound morphemes which occur before after or indise stem • Distinct grammatical unit that CAN NOT occur by itself, always occur with a morpheme (un, pre, ance, ence, er, ed) |
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Syntax
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• Syntax – Language as arrangement and relationship among parts of speech
o (nouns, noun phrases, verbs, verb phrases, and so forth) |
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Lexical Class
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• Lexical class- arrangement of individual words
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Semantics
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• Semantics – Language as Meaning, absent pragmatic factors
o Parts of Meaning • Referent – the material and observable thing-in-itself • “bricks, books, chairs” • Symbol – things which stand for (symbolize) other things, including words • “WSU” |
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Denotative vs. Connotative
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• Denotative – the basic, core concept conveyed by a symbol
• Connotative – meanings which fluctuate, based upon attitudes and individual |
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Stylistic vs. Affective
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• Stylistic –Denotative+connotative+register
• Register of formality- a variation in any of the levels of language (vocabulary, syntax, phonology, morphology) making language more or less formal • Affective – When meaning is overwhelmingly emotional or affect-based |
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Pragmatics
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• Pragmatics – when meaning is driven by context (e.g., speaker intent, relationship, etc.)
o Reminds us that the MEANING of language is not so much IN the symbols but in our agreement of what symbols mean in CONTEXT |
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Phonetic/Phonological Ambiguity
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o Unclear meaning due to the sound(s): pronunciation is unclear or two or more words SOUND the same
o “What is your wait/weight?” |
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Lexical/Syntactic (Structural) Ambiguity
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o When the meaning is unclear because a word in the sentence could be a noun or a verb, or because the organization of the sentence could is awkward
o “stolen painting found by tree” (syntactic) • 1) a tree found a stolen painting • 2)A person found a stolen painting near a tree o “teacher strikes idle kids” (lexical) • Ambiguous because ‘strikes’ COULD be functioning as a verb or noun and ‘idle’ COULD be functioning as a verb or adjective |
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Semantic Vagueness
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When the meaning of a symbol (word) LACKS a referent (i.e., to what does the word refer?)
o “I would like to go to that!” • What does ‘that’ refer to? |
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Semantic Ambiguity
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o Single Symbol ←→ Multiple References
• “Iraqui head seeks arms” • 1)the symbol HEAD could refer to president or part of body • 2)the symbol arms could mean weapons or part of body o Multiple Symbols ←→ Single Reference • “Big dog buys new Ferrari” |
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Pragmatic Ambiguity
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o Refers to a lack of clarity of what is meant within a specific context
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Rhetoric vs. Dialectic
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• Rhetoric – persuasive speech, pretentious words, empty talk with a skill of language, one person speaking to many
o Probability o Demonstration of truth o Practical questions o Aristotle • Dialectic – process of one on one communication o Search for the truth o Philosophical questions o Come to certainty o PLATO |
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Forensic/Courtroom
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• Questions of things in the past
• Accusations and denial • Justifying or defining past actions |
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Deliberative/ Political
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• Questions of things in the future
• Policy • Possibilities, implications |
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Ceremonial/ Epideictic
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• Questions of praise or blame
• Matters of the present • Weddings, funerals |
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Ethos
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o Ethos – Ethics/credibility in persuasion (who is speaking?)
• Intelligence • Virtue- Is the speaker honest? • Goodwill- the positive judgment of speakers intention |
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Pathos
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o Pathos – Affect and emotional persuasion
• How you say it! |
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Logos: Syllogism, Deductive, Inductive
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o Logos – Logical forms (What you say)
• Syllogism: traditional idea of persuading toward truth • Major premise-minor premise-conclusion • Deductive – top-down and absolute argumentation • If/Then • Either/Or • Syllogism (Major/Minor = Conclusion) • Enthymeme (Assumed/Minor = conclusion) • Inductive – bottom-up and not absolute argumentation • Generalization • Examples first then lead to theory |
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Deductive vs Inductive Logic
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• Deductive – top-down and absolute argumentation
• If/Then • Either/Or • Syllogism (Major/Minor = Conclusion) • Enthymeme (Assumed/Minor = conclusion) • Inductive – bottom-up and not absolute argumentation • Generalization • Examples first then lead to theory |
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Consubstantiality, identification, guilt cycle (burke)
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• Burke believed that “language is a strategic human response to a specific situation” (p. 329)
o Life is NOT like a drama; Life is Drama • Identification as Consubstantiality o Less concerned with Enthymeme and Example, than the degree to which speaker IDENTIFIED with audience (through substance) o The more overlap there is between the substance of the speaker and the substance of the listener, the greater the identification, and the greater the potential for the speaker’s objectives to be fulfilled • Consubstantiality – the common ground between speaker-audience, the former’s ability to ‘talk sense’ o More consubstantiation between speaker-audience= more persuasion |
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Pentad Analysis (Burke)
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• Act – rhetorical response to situation Realism
- What took place in thought/deed • Scene – the rhetorical situation Determinism - Context for where and when • Agent – who is DOING what Idealism - Personal responsibility • Agency – stimulus for action Pragmatism (practical) -means or instrument • Purpose – rhetoric’s target/objective Mysticism (referring to larger aspect) -Why the agent is doing their act? |
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Figurative Language
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• Figurative Language – non-literal speech, expression departing from straight-forward description
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Trope
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o Trope: A rhetorical figure of speech that consists of a play on words i.e. using a word in other than what is considered its literal or normal form
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Simile
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explicit comparison between two dissimilar things (like or as)
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Metaphor
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o Metaphor – implicit comparison between two dissimilar things
• “Our love has come to a dead end” • “the businessman’s passport” |
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Extended Metaphor
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two or more source term from same source discourse
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Mixed Metaphor
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two or more source terms from different source discourse
"its not rocket surgery for pete's sake" |
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Active Metaphor
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recognizable as figurative in nature
• Not part of everyday language • “my love is a deep river of emotion” |
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Dead Metaphor
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not recognized as figurative – seems literal
• Say all the time, part of everyday language • “I’m broken hearted” • “Branch of government” |
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Master Metaphor
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When multiple related but distinct examples function within or use the same basic source as target formula.
• Love as a journey |
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Hyperbole
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intentional exaggeration in meaning or degree
• “there are a million bees out here |
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Meiosis
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– intentional understatement in meaning or degree
• “the Iraqi war has cost taxpayers a dollar or two” • Motel 6: “we’ll leave the light on for you” |
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Litotes
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– affirming something by negating its opposite
• “he’s not hard on the eyes” • “not ready for primetime players” |
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Metonymy
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replacement of one thing by something related (part-for-whole, whole-for-part, controller-for-controlled, etc)
• “the law busted in” |
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Allegory
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when the entire text is a metaphorical
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Synecdoche
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replaces literal object with a part for the whole, or a whole for the part
• My body aches today (actually you just have a headache) • The White House acted (Meaning the President) |
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Metaphor/ Simile- Cognitive Model
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Source Discourse(assumed)
Target Discourse(displaced) Source Term(used) Target Term(replaced) |
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Main idea of cultivation theory (gerbner)
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Objective: Concerned not with EFFECT on individual, but with cultivation of AFFECT in our view of society as a scary place, full of danger
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Difference between heavy and light viewers
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o Heavy Viewers – ¼ of Population, watch 4 or more hours of TV per day
o Light Viewers – ¼ of Population, watch less than 2 hours of TV per day |
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Main idea of agenda-setting theory
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The original perspective: “We judge as important, that which the media judge as important” (p. 396)
o The media do not tell us what to think they tell us what to think about |
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Media Framing
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• Framing – “the central organizing idea for news content that supplies a context and suggests what the issue is through the use of selection, emphasis, exclusion, and elaboration
o Framing is inevitable o They set agendas absent of, or in direct contradiction to reality |
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How does the spiral of silence works
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Spiral of Silence – the increasing pressure people feel to conceal their views when they think they are in the minority
o Television helps the spiral but it is not the primary reason for it • Main understanding of media from a cultural studies approach • Hall critiques “mainstream” communication research that is narrowly focused on discovering cause-and-effect relationships • Many students of communication agree that words and other signs contain no intrinsic meaning. Hall asks where people get their meanings • Hall’s answer is that they learn what signs mean through discourse, particularly Media Discourse. |
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Main understanding of media from a cultural studies approach
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- The media as powerful ideological tools
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Discourse analytic methods (Hall)
"Text as a Whole" |
o Text as a whole
• Genre orientation • Allows the analyst to see why certain kinds of statements appear in the text and how they might serve the purposes of the text. • Framing • Frames enable a text to function as more than just a random collection of details but a coherent entity. • Textual prominence • Framing=what words are used • Prominence is about where those words appear with in a text • Omission • Something absent |
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Discourse analytic methods (Hall)
"Sentence and Word" |
• Agent/agency
• AGENCY: who or what holds the power to Do the action of the sentence and who or what is not • Insinuation • =taken-for-granted connotations • “since may, 2004 polish immigrants have FLOODED into the UK” • “Bulgarians set to INVADE as Poles take cash and run • Modality • The tone certitude or authority of a statement • May, could, might, will, must, it seems to me, without a doubt, it’s possible that… • Through hedging words the certainty of a statement is lessoned, creating a plausible deniability in the statement • Presupposition • That which is taken-for granted and unquestioned in sentences • 2 TYPES: o Logical- presuppose the existence of things • “the dog stopped sleeping in its kennel” • “how do you show your school spirit” o Pragmatic- presupposes a connection between 2 presupposed facts. All contain logical ones • “john got sick at the spa” • “how much will lowering taxes stimulate the economy” o Presupposes that lowering the taxes will stimulate the economy o Logical • “I went to the game, yada yada yada, I feel great o Because you went to the game you feel great o pragmatic |
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Main idea of cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger)
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Cognitive Dissonance= the “distressing mental state that people feel when they ‘find themselves doing things that don’t fit what they know, or having opinions that do not fit with other opinions they hold’”
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Hegemony
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Hegemony involves two related processes:
• Hegemony: considered the “common sense” of society • Hegemonic Encoding = the unseen bias and one-sidedness involved in meaning making where powerful interests decide how things are defined. • Acquiescence = the failure to realize the biased nature of hegemonic encoding, and thus NOT to question |
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Cognitive Dissonance Hypotheses
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A. Hypothesis #1: selective exposure prevents dissonance.
1. We avoid information that is likely to increase dissonance. 2. Selective exposure works only when we anticipate hearing ideas that run counter to our beliefs. 3. We SELECTIVELY attend to information- we see what we ‘want’ to see and ‘negate’ that which we do not. B. Hypothesis #2: postdecision dissonance creates a need for reassurance. 1. The more important the issue, the more dissonance. 2. The longer an individual delays a choice, the more dissonance. 3. The greater the difficulty involving reversing the decision, the more dissonance. 4. More or less, whatever we do will be justified RETROSPECTIVELY- it will be rationalized 5. Heightened need for post decision assurance arises from: -importance of the issue -delay in choosing between options -relative difficulty in reversing decision 6. Strong doubts experiences after making an important, close-call decision that is difficult to reverse C. Hypothesis #3: minimal justification for action induces a shift in attitude. 1. Conventional wisdom suggests that to change behavior, you must first alter attitude. 2. Festinger reverses the sequence. He predicts that attitude change and dissonance reduction depend on providing only a minimum justification for the change in behavior. 3. Lack of ‘obvious’ or adequate justification—need to create a justification 4. COMPLIANCE: public conformity to another’s expectation without necessarily having a private conviction that matches the behavior 5. A claim that the best way to stimulate an attitude change in others is to offer just enough incentive to elicit counterattitudinal behavior |
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Main idea of uncertainty reduction theory (Berger)
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UNCERTAINTY REDUCTION: increased knowledge of what kind of person another is that provides an improved forecast of how a future interaction will turn out.
-the assumption that [conversational partners’] primary concern is one of uncertainty or increasing predictability about the behavior of both themselves and others. |
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Main idea of relational dialectics (Baxter)
Integration/Separation |
A) Integration/separation
a. Connection-separateness, inclusion-seclusion, intimacy-independence, closeness-autonomy b. Baxter says we always want both throughout our relationships and what causes friction is when one person wants more independence and one more person wants more intimacy. |
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Main idea of relational dialectics (Baxter)
Stability/ Change |
B) Stability/change
a. Certainty-uncertainty, conventionality-uniqueness, predictability-surprise, routine-novelty b. A combination of each of these is healthy and keeps people feeling safe, normal, and special, but also spontaneous and unique |
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Main idea of relational dialectics (Baxter)
Expression/ Non-expression |
a. Openness-closeness’, revelation-concealment, candor-secrecy, transparency-privacy
b. You always have a need to be both open and private with your significant other rather than what traditional theory says that at the beginning you are very closed in and then as the relationship grows you open up more and more c. In relationships, we have simultaneous, copeting needs to be open with our significant others, but at the same time to have privacy and boundaries. |
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System approach to communication (Watzlawick)
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-The systemic view suggests that problems are NOT individually-based, but systemically-based
-There is no beginning and no end- at least not one that matters- in a sequence of interaction |
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Communication Axiom 1 (Watzlawick)
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One cannot not communicate
-assumes that avoiding communicative expression is impossible -so even things that we (ourselves) do not view as communicatively expressive are so for others around us |
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Communication Axiom 2 and 4 (Watzlawick)
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-All communication has content and relational dimensions
-We all communicate both digitally and analogically -digital= the technically specific and well-defined dimension of language -Analog= the technically ambiguous and ill-defined, but relationally powerful, dimension of language |
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Communication Axiom 3 (Watzlawick)
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Punctuation Communication sequences
-Interactions become patterned (or “punctuated”) and extend through the life of relationship -These points of punctuation give the appearance that one action causes and another action is a reaction, usually toward the purpose of assigning blame A classic example is the Nag-Withdrawal pattern -A systems view, Watzlawick is concerned with how the way things are punctuated creates specific systems dynamics |
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Communication Axiom 5 (Watzlawick)
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-Symmetrical and complementary interactions
-Symmetry=Equality and the minimization of difference. In short, a symmetrical interaction occurs when two people tend to be the SAME -Complementary= Differentiation and the maximization of difference. In short, a complementary interaction occurs when t wo people tend to be OPPOSITE |
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Power vs. Control
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-Power= those forces which determine the capacity a person has to practice control over some other person, across a variety of contexts -ex. Money, rules (hierarchy), cultural norms (traditions), etc
-Control= the actual behavioral practices a person practices over some other person -ex. Sanction, supportive talk, persuasion, etc. |
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One up Communication
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One-up communication seeks to control the exchange.
-Answers with substance (defiance) -Instructions -Orders -Topic Changes -Disconfirmation -Complete statements of initiation -Confronting Talk-overs |
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One down communication
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b. One-down communication yields control.
-All support responses -Questions that seek supportive responses -Non-complete phrases that allow other take control -Supportive talk-overs -Questions that continue present dialogue |
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One across communication
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c. One-across communication neutralizes control.
-extensions -unclear continuances |
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Social Scientific (Prediction) Approach to Culture
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a. Social Scientific (Prediction): Culture is something we HAVE and we can discover universal laws concerning the development and management of culture
i. VALUE-to predict how different cultures will communicate or respond to other’s communication |
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Interpretive Approach (Understanding) to Culture
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b. Interpretive (Understanding): Culture is about deep (espoused and assumed) meaning. systems; Culture is because it means to us
i. VALUE-to understand the significance and meaning of some cultural practice on a deep level. |
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Critical (Critique and Praxis) Approach to Culture
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c. Critical (Critique & Praxis): Culture is ILLUSORY – an illusion. Powerful people control systems of ideas, esp. through media. Given that others are controlling, culture is about “Choosing among options which are NOT of our choosing” (Marx and others)
VALUE-to expose the ideologies behind culture and to empower individuals who are oppresses by the ways in which culture is defined |
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Individualist vs. Collectivist
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Individualistic v Collectivist
i. Individualist = valuing individual over group identity, individual over group rights, and individual over group concerns ii. Collectivist = group over individual identity, group obligations over individual, and ingroup-oriented concerns over individual wants and desires |
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High vs. Low Context
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b. High v Low Context
iii. High, stress implicit verbal, and non-verbal communication iv. Low, stress explicit direct verbal communication 1. Seen through idioms -don’t beat around the bush - killing two birds with one stone - easy as pie -being a straight shooter -tell it to me straight |
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Face vs. Facework
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FACE: is about the respectability and positive social value a person claims for him/herself and from others
FACE WORK -the ACTIONS people employ in creating, maintaining, and fixing FACE -Obvious and subtle ways of presenting the self in everyday -Directly observable |
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Supportive Face vs. Protective Face
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I. Supportive Face: The need of every member of society to be desirable to others and be favorably regarded by them
a. Taps into “INTERDEPENDENCE” II. Protective Face: Our need for freedom of action—to not be interfered with a. Taps into “INDEPENDENCE” and “Independence” |
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Supportive Tact vs. Protective Tact
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Supportive tact: An attempt to show the receiver (and those around) that you have something in common—values, past experiences, or perhaps that you are both part of the same social network.
Techniques include: “Noticing” something about the listener, Using in-group identity markers, Seeking agreement, Avoiding disagreement, Assuming or asserting common ground Protective tact: An attempt to show the receiver (and those around) that you are attempting to avoid infringing on the receiver’s sense of independence (e.g., request versus command). |
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Group Dimensions: Perception of Common Goals
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i. Perception of Common Goals
- There must be a (perception of) common goal(s) to move from a collective to a group -Individuals have individual goals but these may not remain the same as they become folded into a group -The development of group-level goals indicates an important moment in the shift from a collection of individuals to a group |
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Group Dimensions: Perception of Shared Norms
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Perception of Shared Norms
- Norms are expectations for the group as a whole -While individuals have their own sense of norms, our interest is in the development of shared norms among group member –even if it is merely a perception |
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Group Dimensions: Structured Interaction
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Structured Interaction
- Concerns the expectations groups develop concerning interaction among its members -This includes dimensions of interaction: e.g. time, regularity, and intensity -This also includes hoe members’ roles and statuses are assigned |
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Group Dimensions: Interdependence
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Interdependence
- The MOST IMPORTANT dimension distinguishing a collective from a group Interdependence indicates the way behavior of one member impact other members and vice versa TYPES: -Task interdependence -Social/ Relational Interdependence |
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Group think
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- a manner of decision making/problem solving where dissent/difference is suppressed to save group cohesion
- high cohesion - The tendency of cohesive groups not to examine critically all aspects of a decision or problem. Group members fail to express doubts and disagreements in order to avoid conflict -the group overestimates its power and inherent mortality -the group becomes close minded, ignoring alternatives and contradictory information -group members experience pressure to conform, and thus they self-censor -the group is frankly too cohesive |
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Decision-making functions: Analysis of problem
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- Analysis of problem
o Groups must examine current conditions • Clearest example of FAILURE is to not recognize potential threat o Assessment of Nature, Extent, and Probable causes of problem o Ozone Collapse: Function 1= Problem Analysis |
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Decision making functions: Goal Setting
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- Goal setting
o Setting of goal(s) is a key dimension of success o Must also establish criteria to evaluate alternative o This is where we decide if what we are seeking and how we are seeking it fit |
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Decision making functions: Identification of alternative
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o Limited choice may make for quick process, but efficiency does not equal effectiveness
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Decision making functions: evaluation of positive and negative characteristics
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o Members use criteria generated in phase 2 to test options discovered in phase 3, and vice versa
o Positive bias= the tendency to emphasize positive characteristics, and overlook the negative ones in an alternative o Negative Bias= emphasizing negative characteristics and overlooking positive ones |
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Main idea of structuration (Poole and Giddens)
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- In short, how we communicate about things impacts how things get done and will get done.
- The presence of structures make communicative actions recognizable - We may not recognize a communicative action (e.g. command vs. request) without the context |
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Aspects of Bureaucracy
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1. Hierarchy = strict and rigid upward/downward ordering of tasks and commands
2. Span of Control = the number and breadth of employees under a supervisor 3. Division of labor = Splitting up and distinguishing work tasks and responsibilities 4. Unity of command = each employee has one and only one boss 5. Equitable Remuneration = pay equitably distributed based upon tenure and skills |
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Types of Aspects of Communication Networks
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- Wheel
o Everyone in the network goes to the same person - Chain - Y - Circle - All Channel |
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Information-processing and equivocality (Weick)
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Equivocality: situations where people face two or more interpretations, each of which could reasonably account for what’s going on.
-when words or events are equivocal, people don’t need more information -they need a context or framework to help them sort through the data they already have |
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Cultural approach to organizations (Pacanowsky)
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-Organizations look radically different depending on how people in the host culture structure meaning
- “Organizational culture is not just another piece of the puzzle; it is the puzzle. Culture is not something an organization has; a culture is something an organization is.” (Pacanowsky) - Organizational culture is the residue of employees’ performances— o The actions of members that create and reveal their culture to themselves and to others |
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Critical approach to organizational communication (Deetz)
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- Communication theorized as a means of control and emancipation.
o What and how we communicate reflects assumptions distorted by • Unexamined habits • Ideological beliefs • Relations of power |
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Discursive Closure (Deetz)
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making current interpretations appear inevitable, and other interpretations to either NOT appear or to be non-options
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• In Agenda-Setting, the media transfer the salience of topics from their agenda to ours. Agenda-setting assumes that his process is______
a. Not necessarily deliberate b. Proof of liberal-bias of the media c. Part of a government conspiracy d. A form of media hegemony |
A. not necessarily deliberate
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• Using the source as target formula discussed in class, analyze the following headline: “Spacewalkers give Hubble a new heart”
a. Technology as heart b. Technology as biology c. Biology as technology d. Heart as power supply |
C. Biology as technology
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• Which of the following is NOT a form of justification?
a. Denial of victim b. Condemning society at large c. Appeal to natural drives d. Appeal to loyalty |
C. appeal to natural drives
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• What does it mean for someone to take a system approach to communication? (Watzlawick)
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additive behavior, family systems example in book
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• Cognitive Dissonance primarily concerns the tension people feel when
a. One espoused (stated) idea conflicts with another espoused idea b. An espoused idea conflicts with a deeply-held attitude c. A value conflicts with observable behavior d. All of the above |
c. a value conflicts with observable behavior
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• Which of the following statements is NOT true about using ethnography to study organizations?
a. It starts with a sense of curiosity b. It aims to discover the meaning behind a group’s rituals c. It looks at verbal and nonverbal messages d. It is part of a social scientific approach |
D. it is part of a social scientific approach
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• By the term “corporate culture” Pacanowsky means
a. The environment that surrounds an organization b. A property of the organization c. What the organization is d. All of the above |
C. what the organization is
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• One of the dimensions of Peters and Waterman’s Excellent Organizations theory is bias for action. Which other organization communication theory does this resemble?
a. Functional decision-making (hirokawa and gouran) b. Structuration theory (Poole and giddens) c. Information systems approach (Weick) d. Cultural Approach (Pacanowsky) |
C. information systems approach (Weick)
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