College Network Introductory Psychology Final Ex

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Naturalistic

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Method used by researchers to unobtrusively study the behaviors of organisms in their natural environment.

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Associationism

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Theory developed by John Watson that seeks to identify the ways in which people learn through interactions with their environment.

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Biopsychosocial Orientation

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Professional stance of many modern psychologists that supposes people and their behavior must be considered in the context of biological systems, psychological processes, and social influences.

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Empiricism

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The concept that all knowledge stems from our senses.

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Functionalists

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Psychologists who study the ways in which psychological processes help humans adapt to their environment, survive, and prosper.

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Gestalt Theory

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Theory created by Max Wertheimer and further developed by Friedrich Perls that dictates that experience is a function of patterns of the whole being, rather than simply a sum of parts.

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Mental Measurement

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Field that analyzes various aspects of human functioning and measures differences in functioning between individuals.

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Psychoanalysis

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Practice developed by Sigmund Freud that focuses on unconscious conflicts and their resolutions to explain human behavior.

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Structuralism

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Theory created by Wilhelm Wundt that considers the most basic elements of ideas and how they conbine to form complex notions.

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Applied Research

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Research that involves the active study and/or resolution of existing problems.

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Basic Research

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Research that is geared toward gaining knowledge and clarifying concepts with limited emphasis toward the applicability of the findings.

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Case Studies

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A detailed investigation of a single subject or topic from which the findings are generalized; this type of study is often conducted by clinicians, is rich in clinical information, and provides researchers with hypotheses about the interaction of problems and other factors.

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Correlational Studies

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Studies that show how two phenomena or situations correspond to one another

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Cross-validation

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Method of checking data against other researchers' findings in order to reduce possible bias.

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Dependent Variable

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An experimental variable whose value depends on that of the independent variable

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Descriptive Studies

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Studies that describe a phenomenon or situation

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Epidemiological Research

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Type of research that focuses on the prevalence and incidence of events.

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Experimental Studies

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Studies that test the likelihood that one variable causes a change in another variable

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Experimenter Bias

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Threat to research validity that develops when the involved researchers skew the interpretations of their results due to factors such as personal beliefs, drive to succeed, occupational pressure to publish research and the corresponding reluctance of journal editors to publish negative or inconclusive findings.

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Hindsight Bias

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Threat to research validity that develops if a person examines a situation that is already in existence or an event that has already occurred and then generates an explanations for the elements of the situation or event.

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Incidence

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An epidemiological term that refers to the number of new cases of a disorder in a given period.

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Independent Variable

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An experimental variable manipulated by researchers to see whether any change results in the experiments other variables.

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Inferential Studies

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Studies that use statistical techniques to make inferences about the larger population based on a relatively small sample

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Lifetime Prevalence

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An epidemiological term that refers to the percentage of the population who will have a specific disorder at some time during their lives.

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Meta-Analysis

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Research method that involved compiling the results of numerous studies on a particular phenomenon and analyzing the compiled data.

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Prevalence

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An epidemiological term that refers to the percentage of individuals who have a certain disorder during a certain period of time.

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Random Assignment

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The use of chance procedures in psychology experiments to ensure each participant has the same opportunity to be assigned to any given group.

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Survey

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A type of research in which questionnaires are completed by a large group of individuals.

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Correlation Coefficient

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A statistic describing the correspondence between scores/ratings on two different variables, ranging from -1 to +1

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Descriptive Statistics

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Statistics that summarize data by describing their general trends or characteristics.

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Frequency Distribution

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A table that shows the number of subjects falling into several subdivisions of a larger group on a variable of interest.

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Histogram

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A graphic representation of the data in a frequency distribution.

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Inferential Statistics

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Statistics that allow researchers to determine how likely it is that the results found in a particular study reflect real-world differences instead of simply differences between the relatively few subjects in the research sample.

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Outliers

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Any data results that exist far removed from a main cluster of data.

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Population

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The entire group of potential research subjects.

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Range

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An entire set of data, from the lowest number to the highest number.

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Reliability

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The consistency with which something is measured

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Representative Sample

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A research sample whose traits are reflective of those of the population as a whole.

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Sample

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A set of subjects chosen from the overall population who will be used in research efforts.

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Statistical Significance

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The degree to which research results have not occurred by chance.

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Validity

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The ability to accurately measure or predict the logical correctness of some proposition or conclusion.

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Action potential

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The change in electrical charge of a neuron that occurs when the neuron has been activated by a stimulus.

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Afferent neurons

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Sensory neurons

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Agonists

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Drugs that produce the same effect as a specific neurotransmitter by causing neurons to fire.

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Antagonists

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Drugs that inhibit the effects of a neurotransmitter.

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Axon

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The single fiber that conducts action potentials away from a neurons cell body.

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Cell body

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The part of a neuron that contains the nucleus and upon which dendrites converge.

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Central nervous system

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Consists of nerves in the brain and spinal cord

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Dendrites

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A network of filaments at one end of a neuron that carry info to the neurons cell body.

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Efferent neurons

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Motor neurons

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Glial cell

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Special cells that, along with neurons, form the complex network of the nervous system.

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Inter neurons

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Neurons that carry info from one neuron to another

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Motor neurons

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Carry info from brain to muscles

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Myelin

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A fatty material that forms a protective sheath over the axons of neurons and speeds up the conduction of action potentials.

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Neurons

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Nerve cells which are the basic building blocks of nervous system.

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Nodes of ranvier

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The gaps within the myelin sheath that covers the axon of neuron.

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Peripheral nervous system

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All nerves beyond CNS

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Resting potential

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The electric charge across the cell membrane of a neuron at rest

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Sensory neurons

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Carry info from various sense organs to the brain

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Synapse

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The gap between nerve cells

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Adrenal gland

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Structures in endocrine system that release adrenaline, sending the body into highly aroused state so that actions may be quickly performed in threatening situations.

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Amygdala

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Part of the limbic system that produces rage when stimulated.

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Autonomic nervous system

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Part of the PNS that connects the CNS to parts of the body over which we have little voluntary control such as heart and lungs.

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Brain stem

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portion of the CNS at which the brain intersects with the spinal cord; contains the medulla and the pons.

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Cerebellum

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The region of the brain that involved the coordination of movement and muscle development.

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Cerebral cortex

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The center for higher brain functions, such as language, perception, cognitive functioning, and voluntary movements.

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Corpus callosum

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A bundle of nerves that transmits info between the two hemispheres of the brain.

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Endocrine system

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A system of glands throughout the body that influence the number of processes, including metabolism, emotional state, and sexual development and reproduction.

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Frontal lobes

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Parts of the brain that primarily are responsible for language, planning, and conceptualization skills, and motor functions.

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Hemispheric specialization

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The concept that each hemisphere of the brain primarily controls different functions.

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Hippocampus

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The part of the limbic system that appears to be responsible for processing new info into long term memory.

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Hypothalamus

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Brain structure that seems to be important for critical bodily functions, such as thirst, temp, and hunger. It is also likely involved in motivation and influencing aggressive and sexual impulses.

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Left hemisphere

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The left side of the cerebral cortex, which controls the right half of the body and is responsible for cognitive functions.

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Limbic system

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The portion of the midbrain that includes the septum, amygdala, and hippocampus and that handles much of the basic emotional functioning of the brain.

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Medial forebrain bundle

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Major pressure point of brain.

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Medulla

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The part of the brain that directly connects the spinal cord; this structure monitors reflex functions and controls involuntary reflexes.

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Midbrain

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The part of the brain that primarily consists of the cerebellum and limbic system.

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Occipital lobes

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The brains primary areas for handling visual info.

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Pancreas

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Produces insulin to control metabolism of sugar

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Parasympathetic nervous system

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A portion of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for restoration of energy.

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Parathyroid

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Along w the thyroid, one of the glands within the endocrine system that controls metabolism rates.

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Parietal lobes

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The brains primary areas for sensation of touch.

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Pituitary gland

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Controls various other glands in the endocrine system through release of hormones. It also regulates the activity of the male and female reproductive organs, and the production of milk in females, and uterine contractions during childbirth.

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Plasticity

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The brains ability to compensate for certain injuries or malformations.

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Pons

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A relay station in the brain stem that sorts out and redirects individual nerve impulses and also influences the sleep-wake cycle.

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Reticular activating system RAS

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A bundle of nerve fibers within the pons that appear to be responsible for arousal from sleep.

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Reward pathway

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A group of medial forebrain structures that perceive pleasure when the neurons running through them are stimulated.

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Right hemisphere

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The right side of the cerebral cortex, which controls the left half of the body, is credited with more creative functions, is thought to be more visually and spatially oriented, and provides the ability to perceive a whole as a sum of parts.

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Septal rage

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A condition of angry, aggressive, and violent behavior that may occur when an animals septum is damaged.

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Septum

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The structure within brain that controls amygdala.

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Somatic nervous system

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The portion of the peripheral nervous system that connects the CNS to voluntary muscles.

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Sympathetic nervous system

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The portion of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for energy expenditure.

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Temporal lobes

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Parts of the brain that specialize in auditory info processing.

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Thalamus

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Brain structure that serves to integrate and organize nerve impulses passing between parts of the cerebral cortex.

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Absolute threshold

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The point at which humans can perceive an external stimulus.

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Difference threshold

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The minimal difference that must exist between two stimuli in order for humans to distinguish a difference between the two.

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Feature detectors

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Nerve cells of the brain that respond to specific features of a stimulus, such as shape or movement.

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Information processing theory

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One way in which theorists conceptualize the interactions between sensation and perception. According to this theory, info enters the body (sensation), and then we interpret this info (perception).

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Just noticeable difference JND

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Difference threshold

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Sensory adaptation

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Bodily adaptation that involves diminishing sensitivity to an unchanging stimulus as our nerve cells begin to fire less frequently after constant exposure to a stimulus.

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Synesthesia

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A neurological condition in which stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to autonomic, involuntary experiences in a second sensory or cognitive pathway.

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Transduction

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The process by which external energy becomes neural impulses.

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Webers law

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Law stating that two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum proportion for a person to perceive the difference.

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Amplitude

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The height of a sound wave which produces loudness

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Cones

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Short, fat photoreceptors that taper to a pointed tip; they are responsible for color perception.

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Cornea

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Clear, curved, outer membrane covering the eye

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Fovea

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Center point of the retina, where images are focused.

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Frequency

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The number of times a sound wave repeats itself in a given period of time.

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Frequency theory

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Theory suggesting that the firing rate of nerve cells matches the frequency of a sound wave which triggers impulses to the brain at the same frequency as the sound wave.

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Gate control theory

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Theory proposing that the spinal cord contains a neurological gate that either blocks pain or allows pain signals to pass on to the brain to be perceived.

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Herings opponent process theory

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Theory contending that there are two additional color processes beyond red, blue, and green perception. One responsible for red versus green perception, and one responsible for yellow versus blue perception.

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Iris

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The ring shaped muscle in the middle of the front of the eye that opens and closes, allowing sunlight to pass through the pupil.

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Kinesthesia

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The sense of position and movement of body parts in relation to each other.

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Lens

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A clear structure located behind pupil, which helps focus images by changing shape depending in how far away a viewed object is.

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Negative afterimage

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Phenomenon that occurs when one stares at a color image and then sees the same image in the opposite colors after shifting ones eyes.

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Pheromones

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Chemicals produced by an organism as a method of communication through odor to attract other organisms.

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Place theory

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Theory proposing that we hear different pitches because sound waves trigger different places along the cochlear basilar membrane inside the ear.

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Pure sound

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Sound that is dominated by single-frequency waves.

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Retina

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The interior lining of the rear part of the eye, which contains the photoreceptors.

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Rods

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Slender, elongated, cylinder-shaped photoreceptors that are sensitive to changes in light waves. They are responsible for peripheral vision and night vision.

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Timbre

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The sharpness of sound.

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Young-helm holt theory

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Theory suggests that the retina has three types of color receptors. Red, green, and blue.

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Binocular cues

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Processes of vision that require both eyes.

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Bottleneck model

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Asserting that we have biological limitations caused by the physical or structural characteristics of our nervous system that control the amount of stimulation we can process.

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Capacity model

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Operating on the principle that we have psychological limitations that determine the amount if stimulation we can attend.

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Clairvoyance

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Perception of remote events in time or space, a type of extra sensory perception.

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Color constancy

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The notion that if we are aware of an objects color, then we will continue to perceive the object as that color despite actual changes in lighting that cause the object to appear a different color.

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Connectedness

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Perceiving spots, lines, or areas as a single unit when they are uniform and linked in some way.

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Continuity

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Perceiving smooth continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones.

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Contrast

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Ability to differentiate something from the other stimuli around it.

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Convergence

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A muscular cue that determines the extent to which the eyes turn inward.

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Depth perception

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Ability to see objects in three dementions. Which allows us to estimate their distance from us.

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Mental set

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Predisposed way in which we perceive something.

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Monocular cues

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Process of vision that are obtained by each eye separately.

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Orientation

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An element of attention through which we position our sense organs to maximize our ability to process stimuli.

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Parapsychology

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The field that attempts to use scientific methods to study extra sensory perception and additional ways in which human consciousness is claimed to be able to interact with the physical world.

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Perception

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Processing sensations so that they are understood cognitively.

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Perceptual constancy

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The ability to see objects as unchanging, even if illumination and retinal image change.

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Perceptual set

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The phenomenon that occurs when a persons belief or expectation influences his or her perception.

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Precognition

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Perception of future events, a type of extraordinary perception.

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Proximity

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Grouping nearby figures together.

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Relative size

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The assumption that if two objects are similar in size, we perceive the one that casts the smaller image in the retina as farther away.

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Retinal disparity

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Binocular cue that allows us to determine the distance of an object by the difference in images produced by each eye.

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Activation synthesis theory

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Snuggest so that random firing of nerves in the brain stem activates part of the cerebral cortex. The cortex then interprets the firings based on stored memories, attempting to make sense do the pattern of neuron firings.

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Alpha waves

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The type of brain waves that begin during the awake but drowsy stage of sleep cycle.

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Automatic processing

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Another name for unconscious processing

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Conscious processing

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The processing of events one at a time, with each receiving our undivided attention.

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Controlled processing

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Another name for conscious processing

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Delta waves

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Type of brain waves that increase during stage 3 and become prominent in stage 4 of the sleep cycle.

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Dissociation

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A state in which two parts of thbrain are functioning concurrently but separately and are not sharing information with one another.

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Dyssomnias

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Problems related to the amount, time, or quality of sleep.

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Activation synthesis theory

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The theory suggesting that random firing of nerves in the brain stem activates parts of the cerebral cortex; the cortex then interprets the firings based on stored memories, attempting to make sense of the pattern of neuron firings.

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Alpha waves

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Brain waves that begin during the awake but drowsy stage of the sleep cycle

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Conscious processing

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The processing of events one at a time, with each receiving our undivided attention.

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Delta waves

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Type of brain waves that increase during stage 3 and become prominent in stage 4 of the sleep cycle.

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Dissociation

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A state in which two parts of the brain are functioning concurrently but separately and aren't sharing info w each other.

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Dream anxiety disorder

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A sleep disorder marked by frequent and disruptive nightmares

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Dyssomnias

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Problems related to the amount, time, and quality of sleep.

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Night terrors

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Episodes of screaming or talking incoherently that occur during the first few hours of sleep, typically during stage 4 sleep.

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Parasomnias

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Abnormal events that occur during sleep

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REM sleep

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Stage in sleep in which brain waves and breathing are rapid, significant eye movement occurs, and the body is essentially paralyzed and difficult to arouse.

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Unconscious processing

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Processing large amounts of info simultaneously, without awareness.

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Anhedonia

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The feeling that nothing is enjoyable

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Cannabinoids

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Psychoactive substances that provide mild euphoria, heightened receptive sense of humor, increased appetite, distorted sense of time, and disruptions in logical thinking. Marijuana and hashish.

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CNS depressants

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Psychoactive substances that slows a persons heart rate, relax muscles, promote sleep, cause social disinhibition, and reduce consciousness. Alcohol, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines.

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De automatization

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The process of increasing an individual's awareness of cognitive processes.

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Endorphins

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Opioid-like substances that exist naturally in the body.

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Half life

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The rate of breakdown for a substance

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Hallucinogens

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Psychoactive substances that can increase an individual's awareness of cognitive processes, trigger sensory illusions, and cause synesthesia. LSD and mushrooms.

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Korsokoffs syndrome

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A disorder similar to Alzheimer's but is caused by long term heavy drinking.

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Opiates

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Psychoactive substances derived from the poppy plant that reduce pain and the sense of urgency related to biological needs. Heroin, opium, and morphine.

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Opioids

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Synthetic drugs that mimic the effects of opiates. Methadone.

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Solvents

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Readily available psychoactive substances that are inhaled to reach an altered state of consciousness. Glue and gasoline

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Stimulant

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Psychoactive substances that provide energy, exhilaration, talkativeness, and mood elevation and reduced fatigue and appetite. Amphetamines, cocaine, nicotine, and caffeine.

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Acquisition

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The initial learning of a stimulus-response pattern in response to reinforcement.

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Chaining

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Several related responses are learned through operant conditioning.

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Classical conditioning

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The type of learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus us paired with one that elicits an automatic response. Over time, the neutral stimulus comes to elicit the automatic response by itself as the person learns the association.

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Conditioned response

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The learned response that an organism exhibits in response to a conditioned stimulus.

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Conditioned stimulus

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A neutral stimulus that is paired with an unconditioned stimulus so that it will eventually produce the same response as the stimulus.

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Fixed interval schedule

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Reinforcement is provided after a specific period of time.

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Fixed ratio schedule

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Reinforcement is provided after a specific number of responses

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Generalization

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the expanding of a stimulus-response pattern to include stimuli that are similar to the initial stimulus

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Habituation

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A simple form of learning that arises from repeated exposure to a stimulus.

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Instinctive drift

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When animal reverts back to biologically predisposed patterns after learning patterns that aren't naturally adopted behaviors.

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Interval schedule

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Reinforcement schedules in which reinforcement is applied after a certain amount of time.

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Learning

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A durable change in behavior that results from experience

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Negative reinforcement

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Operant conditioning in which the removal of an adverse stimulus increases the likelihood that an individual will repeat that behavior

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Operant conditioning

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Type of learning that involves associating behaviors with their consequences and perceiving these consequences as either punishments or rewards

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Ratio schedules

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Reinforcement based on the number of times a certain behavior is performed

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Reinforcer

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A change that occurs in an environment following a behavior and increased the likelihood that behavior will be repeated

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Shaping

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Gradually guiding a person to act a certain way

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Successive approximation

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Reinforcing an individual for engaging in behaviors that are increasingly similar to the desired behavior.

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Variable interval schedule

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Reinforcement is provided after varying time periods

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Variable ratio schedule

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Reinforcement is provided after a fluctuating number of responses

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Variable schedule

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Reinforcement is provided after differing amounts of time or numbers of behaviors

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auditory memory

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type of sensory memory that allows us to hear echoes of sounds.

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automatic processing

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info processing that occurs with little or no effort, happens automatically without awareness, and requires no special attention.

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context effect

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the ability to recall info best in the environment in which it was learned.

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declarative memory

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memory that allows us to remember fact or events

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echoic memory

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another name for auditory memory.

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effortful processing

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the retention of info that requires effort and attention

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encoding

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the process of putting info into memory

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episodic memory

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type o declarative memory that involved remembering events that you experienced personally.

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explicit memory

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the memory of facts and xperiences that one knows consciously.

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flashbulb memories

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clear (though not always accurate) memories of significant events.

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iconic memory

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another name for visual memory

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implicit memory

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the retrieval of info without conscious awareness.

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information processing

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the activities of sensing, perceiving, learning, thinking, and remembering.

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long-term memory

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the nearly limitless amount of info that can be stored for an entire human life.

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misinformation effect

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phenomenon that occurs when people who have witnessed an event are given inaccurate info regarding the event and then incorporate elements of the misinformation into their recollection of the event.

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priming

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a type of implicit memory that activates related associations.

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proactive interference

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phenomenon that occur when previously learned info interferes with the recall of newly learned info.

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procedural memory

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memory that allows us to remember how to do something.

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repression

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the alteration or loss of painful or anxiety-provoking memories.

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retrieval

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the process of extracting info from memory for use.

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retrieval cues

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cues that provide a reminder for info that we could not access otherwise from memory.

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retroactive interference

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Phenomenon that occurs when newly learned info interferes with the recall of old info.

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semantic memory

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type of declarative memory that involves remembering bits of info.

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sensory memory

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our initial record of sensory info in the memory system, lasting only a very brief period of time.

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serial position effect

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the ability to recall the first or last piece of a group of info rather than info that is in the middle.

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short-term memory

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type of memory that involves info that was actively attended to and that lasts for about fifteen to thirty seconds.

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spacing effect

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the learning of material over time that often enables better long-term retention of info than does cramming.

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state dependence

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the ability to recall info more readily when we are in the same internal state as when we learned it

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visual memory

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type of sensor memory that allows us to see traces of images, such as when someone swings a light around in circles.

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working memory

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another name for short term memory.

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arousal phase

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the second component of the sexual response cycle, during which breathing, BP, and pulse rate increase, as does the engorgement of the genitals that began during the desire phase.

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desire phase

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the first component of the sexual response cycle, during which the genital areas are prepared for sex through increased blood flow and lubrication

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double-depletion hypothesis

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a theory that explains the biological causes o thirst as a combination of intracellular and extracellular processes.

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extrinsic motivation

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the seeking of achievement to receive reinforcement from others or to avoid punishment

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instinct

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an innate fixed pattern of behavior in living creatures.

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intrinsic motivation

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the internal desire for achievement of performance for its own sake or to accomplish a personal goal.

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Maslows Hierarchy of needs

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Theory developed by Abraham Maslow that attempts to account for various motivations and prioritize the power of needs over behavior.

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resolution

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the final component of he sexual response cycle, during which the body returns to normal

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sensate focus

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a technique used to overcome sexual dysfunction that is based on the idea that anxiety related to performance or fear of harm interferes with sexual functioning.

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set point

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a fixed weigt level toward whih our odies tend due to competition between two opposing processes of the hypothalamus.

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Cannon-Bard Theory

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proposing that our bodys response begins as we experience emotion, and that does not caused the other.

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catharsis

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the emotional release or venting of anger.

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James-Lange Theory

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states we feel emotion after we notice or bodys response

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Schachters two-factor theory

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stating that emotions are composed of two elements: the physical arousal and the cognitive label.

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accommodation

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the process of expanding ones schemas to accommodate new info

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assimilation

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the process of taking a new experience and incorporating it into an existing category, concept, and idea.

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concrete operations stage

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developmental stage from about age seven through eleven years old in which children begin to think logically about concrete events, grasp concrete analogies, and perform arithmetic operations.

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conservation

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the idea that a given quantity remains the same despite shape changes

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formal operations stage

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last stage in cognitive development, lasing from about age twelve through adulthood, which is characterized by the ability to reason abstractly.

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preoperational stage

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developmental stage from about age two through six years old, in which developing children represent things with words and images but lack logical reasoning.

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schemas

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concepts that consolidate past experiences and offer a model for understanding future experiences.

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sensorimotor stage

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developmental stage from birth to about age two, when humans understand their world through interactions such as looking and touching.

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aptitude tests

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tests that predict the ability to learn new skills

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factor approach

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an approach to intelligence that exists in people, underlying specific intelligences or abilities that may vary across individuals.

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Intelligence Quotient IQ

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A single number used to describe an individuals intelligence, origionlly computed by dividing the individuals mental age by his or her chronological age and dividing by 100.

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reification

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the phenomenon in which an abstract concept is eventually viewed as a reality itself.

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linguistic relativity hypothesis

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hypothesis put forth by bnjamin whorf that proposed that language determines thought.

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morphemes

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the smallest elements of language that have meaning

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phonemes

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a group of elementary sounds

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syntax

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a set of the rules of language that enable us to communicate

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algorithm

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a methodical, logical procedure for problem solving.

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availability heuristic

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heuristic in which people make decisions based upon their most available memories.

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confirmation bias

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the bias that occurs when humans search for info to confirm or support preconceived ideas.

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heuristics

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shortcuts to solving problems or "rules of thumb"

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mental set

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the phenomenon that occurs when a solution that has worked in the past is repeatedly attempted, despite the fact that the solution no longer works or that more efficient solutions exist.

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metacogition

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"thinking about thinking" in order to improve ones cognitive ability.

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prototypes

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idealized versions of concepts

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representativeness heuristic

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heuristic in which an individual relies upon his or her impressions of an ambiguous piece of info and how closely it fits a familiar defined structure.

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behavior genetics

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the study of how behavioral differences between people relate to biological difference

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cognitive development

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changes in mental ability such a learning, language, memory, thinking, and reasoning.

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concordance

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similarity with regard to a given trait

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conventional level

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the second level of moral development as proposed by Lawrence Kohlberg, during which the rightness of a behavior is determined in the reaction to the approval or disapproval of others and in regards to social conventions.

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cross-sectional studies

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studies that measure the differences in people at one age or at one time.

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longitudinal studies

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studies that measure characteristics of individuals over time to see how they change with age.

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post conventional level

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the third level of moral development as proposed by Lawrence Kohlberg, during which decisions are justified by internalized standards and the common good.

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preconventional level

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the first level of moral development as proposed by Lawrence Kohlberg during which people determine the rightness of a behavior based on its reward or punishment by society

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psychosocial stages

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Eight stages of development proposed by
Erik Erickson: each stage involves a specific crisis, and resolution of this crisis will allow an individual to successfully move on to the next stage and develop a new "virtue".

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social-emotional development

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changes in a persons style of responding, feeling, and reacting to others.

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alleles

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pairs of genes inherited from ones parents, with one gene coming from the father and one from the mother.

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alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) test

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A diagnostic test in which a blood sample is taken from the mother during the sixteenth to eighteenth week of pregnancy and screened for the amount of AFP present; high amounts ma indicate the possibility of birth defects.

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Authoritarian parenting

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Parenting style in which parents dictate rules and expect compliance without explanation or reasoning and without encouraging open discussion of issues.

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Authoritative parenting

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Parenting style in which parents impose rules but explain the reasoning for them and encourage open discussion.

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Crystallized Intelligence

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Accumulated knowledge

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embryonic stage

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the period of human prenatal development from the third week to the ninth week.

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Fetal stage

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the period of human prenatal development from

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fetoscopy

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A diagnostic test in which a tiny camera lens is inserted into the uterus to visualize the fetus or take a fetal blood sample.

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fluid intelligence

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the ability to reason abstractly and speedily

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Generativity

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The process of being individually productive while simultaneously being supportive of others.

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genotypes

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The genetic patterns of alleles that cannot be seen.

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Germinal Stage

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The period of human prenatal development from conception through the second week.

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heterozygous

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Term describing two different alleles

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Homozygous

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Term describing two identical alleles

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Menarche

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A females menstrual period

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object permanence

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An awareness that object exist even when out of view.

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permissive parenting

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Parenting style in which parents acquiesce to their child's demands, make few requirements of the child, and rarely if ever use punishment.

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phenotypes

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The observable traits of a person, such as hair or eye color.

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Rejecting-neglecting parenting

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Parenting style in which parents are not involved in their child's life, expect little from the child, and devote little of their own time and effort to rearing the child.

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teratogens

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Influences, such as chemicals or viruses, that cause physical defects in developing embryo.

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umbilical cord assessment

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A diagnostic test in which samples of blood from the umbilical cord are taken to examine liver function and other fetal bodily functions that are not measurable by other means.

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Anal Stage

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Freud's second stage of psychosexual maturation, which involves the task of becoming toilet trained during the years two and three.

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archetypes

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spiritual symbols that appear in many different cultures.

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behaviorism

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branch of psychology founded on the notion that observable behavior is the only appropriate focus of psychology.

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displacement

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ego defense mechanism that involves shifting negative feelings to "safer" targets

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electra complex

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the phenomenon in human development that occurs anywhere from ages three to five when girls develop a bond with their father and develop a fear of or rivalry with their mother.

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genital stage

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Freud's psychosexual maturation when children begin to form adult sexual desires and interests. Sexual identity begins.

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humanistic theories

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theories of personality that focus on the subjective experiences of people striving for meaning and growth.

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id

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strives to gain immediate gratification without concern for its cost of effect on others

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identification

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ego defense mechanism that involves reducing moral anxiety by aligning self with a valued person, goal or cause.

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introjection

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ego defense mechanism that involves reducing anxiety by adopting values and standards of important others.