Chapter 2: Cognitive Neuroscience

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Cognitive Neuroscience

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Merge of cognitive psychology and neuroscience. Aims to discover brain mechanisms that give rise to human mental functions.
Interdisciplinary
Uses convergent methodologies

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Modules

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The section of the brain, each of which is responsible for particular cognitive operations

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Phrenology

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Study of shape, size, and protrusions of the cranium in an attempt to discover the relation of parts of the brain to various mental activities and abilities. Localization of function. Franz J. Gall and J.G. Spurzheim

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Localization of function

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The attempt to discover correspondences between specific cognitive functions and specific parts of the brain, based on the assumption that there is a strict one-to-one correspondence between specific functions and specific parts of the brain.

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Law of mass function

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Learning and memory depend on the TOTAL MASS of brain tissue remaining rather than the properties of individual cells.

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Law of equipotentiality

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Even though some areas of the cortex may become specialized for certain tasks, within limits any part of an area can do the job of any other part of that area

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Interactionism

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Mind and body are separate entities which interact with each other. Pineal gland as the ‘seat of the soul’. Descartes, Sperry

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Epiphenomenalism

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Mind is a by-product of the brain functions. Cannot change or influence the brain processes. 'Locomotive-steam' analogy. Huxley, Skinner

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Parallelism

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Mind and brain are two aspects of the same reality and flow in parallel. Both mind and body are important. Fechner

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Isomorphism

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Mental events and neural events share the same structure."Whole' is greater than 'sum of the parts'
Still relevant theory. Kohle

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Animal models

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Indirect route to studying human brain, possesses the benefit of using invasive methods.
Methods: lesions, single-cell recording, multiple-unit recording.
Weakness: specialization between the species does not allow generalizations

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Behavioral studies

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Approach combining normal sensory system with precise stimuli presentation and response recording.
Weakness: no direct connection between behavior and brain mechanism.

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Broca's aphasia

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A deficit in the ability to produce speech despite being able to understand what is said.

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Broca's area

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Are of the left hemisphere that is responsible for how words are spoken

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Wernicke's area

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Are of the brian's left hemisphere that is responsible for processing the meaning of words

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Wenicke's aphasia

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A deficit in the ability to comprehend speech despite being able to produce coherent speech.

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Interhemispheric transfer

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Communication between the brain's hemisphere is enabled in large part by the corpus callosum
Discovery by Sperry

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Split brain

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A condition created by severing corpus callosum. Experiment performed by Sperry. An animal acted as if it had two entirely separate brains.

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Emergent property

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In Sperry's sense, 'mind' comes about as a result of brain processes, but is not itself a component of the brain. This means that the mind is not reducible to or predictable from other features of the brian.

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Emergent causation

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In Sperry's sense, once the 'mind' emerges from the brain, it ten has the power to influence lower-level processes.

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Supervenient

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In Sperry's sense, mental states may influence neuronal events while being influenced by them.

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Computer tomography (CT)

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Static brain imaging technique. Uses computer-processed X-rays to produce tomographic images or 'slices' of the brain

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Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

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Static brain imaging technique

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Event-related potential (ERP)

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Dynamic brain imaging technique.
Electrical signals recorded from the brain that occur after the onset of a stimuli. Provide suggestive information, but need to be supplemented by other techniques to give a complete picture.

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Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

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Dynamic brain imaging technique.
An imaging technique in which a participant is injected with a radioactive substance that mingles with the blood and circulates to the brain. A scanner is then used to detect the flow of blood to particular areas of the brain. Enables construction of images that show which parts of the brain are particularly active in relation to the performance a task.
Weakness: radiation

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Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

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Dynamic brain imaging technique.
A non-radioactive, magnetic procedure for detecting the flow of oxygenated blood to various parts of the brain. Fast

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Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

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Brain activity recorded through changes in the magnetic field. Excellent temporal resolution.

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Transcranila Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

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Method for reversible human lesion. Transient disruption of brain activity by application of focal magnetic field. Th scan show brain activity.

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Connectionism

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The theory that cognitive processes are regulated by complex systems consisting of a large number of interconnected elements 9not just one area responsible for a function, but a few ares interacting)

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Neural networks

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A system of connections between elements that models connections between neurons in the nervous system

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Hebb Rule

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Connection between neurons take place only if both neurons are firing at approximately the same rate.

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Parallel processing

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Many neural connections can be active at the same time

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Serial processing

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Only one neural activity may take place at any one time

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Animal reversible lesions

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Temporary damage to the animal brain. Observe the effects on behavior. Methods: chemical lesions, cooling of neural tissue

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Animal irreversible lesions

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Permanent damage to the animal brain. Observe the effects on behavior. Methods: stereotactic surgery, aspiration lesions, neurochemical, and electric (electrical current) lesions

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Human reversible lesions

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Temporary damage to human brain with transcranial magnetic simulations (TMS)

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Human irreversible lesions

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Permanent damage to human brain. due to natural causes. Never induced. May result from: vascular disorders, tumors, degenerative disorders, head trauma