Ch. 5 Social Psychology And Human Nature 2Nd Edition, Baumeister & Bushman Ch. 5

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Before the 1970s, social psychology was dominated by the doctrine of:

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behaviorism

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______ focuses on how people interpret the causes of events, such as external pressures or internal traits

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Attribution Theory

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A movement in social psychology that began in the 1970s that focused on thoughts about people and about social relationships

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SOCIAL COGNITION

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Human beings have a brain about the size of a _________, and it weighs about __________

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large grapefruit; 3 pounds

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A term used to describe people's reluctance to do much extra thinking

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COGNITIVE MISER

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________ a standard measure of effortful control over responses, requiring participants to identify the color of a word (which may name a different color)

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STROOP TEST

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____________ the finding that people have difficulty overriding the automatic tendency to read the word rather than name the ink color

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STROOP EFFECT

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At least five elements distinguish automatic from controlled processes:

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awareness, intention, control, effort, and efficiency

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___________organized packets of information that are stored in memory

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KNOWLEDGE STRUCTURES

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______ are subject to deliberate control, so it can be difficult or even impossible to avoid having certain thoughts that have been cued. A

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Automatic thoughts

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The pervasiveness, interconnectedness, and accessibility of any learned knowledge structure is largely determined by

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the frequency with which it is encountered, imagined, and used

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(Lecture and Book) _____ are knowledge structures that represent substantial information about a concept, its attributes, and its relationships to other concepts

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SCHEMAS

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____________ are knowledge structures that define situations and guide behavior

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SCRIPTS

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pIanting or activating an idea in someone's mind

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PRIMING

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whether messages stress potential gains (positively framed) or potential losses (negatively framed)

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FRAMING

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focuses on the positive, such as how your teeth will be stronger and healthier if you brush and floss them every day

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GAIN-FRAMED APPEAL

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focuses on the negative, such as the potential for getting cavities if you do not brush and floss your teeth every day

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LOSS-FRAMED APPEAL

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gain-framed appeals are more effective when targeting behaviors that

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prevent the onset of disease,

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loss-framed appeals are more effective when targeting behaviors that

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detect diseases that people may already have but not be aware of

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the "what the heck" effect that occurs when people indulge in a behavior they are trying to regulate after an initial regulation failure

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COUNTERREGULATION

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When people want to suppress a thought, their mind sets up two processes.

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One keeps a lookout for the unwanted thought. The other redirects away from the unpleasant thought

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People who are trying to overcome vices are

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better off not suppressing unwanted thoughts of the things they crave

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The paradoxical effects of thought suppression have been linked to a variety of psychological disorders, especially

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anxiety disorders

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Research has shown that _____ and ______ are more effective than suppression

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distraction and even rumination

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The causal explanations people give for their own and others' behaviors, and for events in general

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ATTRIBUTIONS

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Heider said most . Explanations fall into one of two major categories:

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(a) internal factors (b) external factors

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Internal, unstable attributions involve:

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ability

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Ability attributions are very important because they:

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invoke relatively permanent aspects of the self.

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Internal, unstable attributions involve:

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effort.

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Peoplt from collectivist cultures emphasize _____, whereas people from individualistic cultures emphasize _____

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effort, ability

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External, stable attributions point to:

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the difficulry of the task.

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External and unstable attributions involve:

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luck.

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The self-serving bias is an important feature of:

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self-presentation

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Self-presentation is about:

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trying to influence the attributions that other people make about you.

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Related to the self-serving bias is the tendency for individuals to _________ how much they contributed to a group project

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overestimate ho'

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Actors tend to attribute their own behavior to the _____ (____)

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situation (external)

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Observers tend to attribute actors' behavior to the_____ (____)

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actors (internal)

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Actors tend to make _________ attributions.

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external

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Observers make _____

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internal attributions.

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(Lecture and Book) The tendency to take credit for success but deny blame for failure

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SELF-SERVING BIAS

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(Lecture and Book) The tendency for actors to make external attributions and observers to make internal attributions

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ACTOR/OBSERVER BIAS

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This bias is found in individuals from both collectivist and individualist cultures

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FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR (CORRESPONDENCE BIAS)

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The tendency for observers to attribute other people's behavior to internal or dispositional causes and to downplay situational causes

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FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR (CORRESPONDENCE BIAS)

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The tendency for observers to make internal attributions (fundamental attribution error) about whole groups of people

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ULTIMATE ATTRIBUTION ERROR

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There are at least four explanations for the fundamental attribution error

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1.) behavior is more noticeable than situational factors

2,) people assign insufficient weight to situational causes.

3.) people are cognitive misers.

4.) language is richer in trait-like terms to explain behavior than in situational terms.

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Actors are _______ ________than observers to state reasons for how they acted

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more likely

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Actors are also _____ _______ to explain their acts by citing their beliefs, whereas observers point to t the actors' desires:

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more likely

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People judge others by their ctions but judge themselves by their _______

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intentions

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People regard others as ______ but do not regard themselves as ___________ to the same degree, a:

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conforming/conformist

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"Do others behave similarly in this situation?"

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consensus

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Does the person usually behave this way in this situation?"

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consistency

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People generally make an external attribution when consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness are a all

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high

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People generally make an internal attribution when consistency is _____ but distinctiveness and consensus are _____

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high, low

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For something to be the cause of a behavior, it must be present the behavior occurs and absent when the behavior does not occur

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COVARIATION PRINCIPLE

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in attribution theory, whether other people would do the same thing in the same situation

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CONSENSUS

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in attribution theory, whether the person typically behaves this way in this situation

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CONSISTENCY

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in attribution theory, whether the person would behave differently in a different situation

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DISTINCTIVENESS

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an attribution theory that uses three types of information: consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness

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ATTRIBUTION CUBE

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mental shortcuts that provide quick estimates about the likelihood of uncertain events

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HEURISTICS

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(Lecture and Book) the tendency to judge the frequency or likelihood of an event by the extent to which it resembles the typical case

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REPRESENTATIVENESS HEURISTIC

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The four most common heuristics:

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a) representativeness, (b) availability, (c) simulation, and (d) anchoring and adjustment

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The woman who kept her own name was judged to be more:

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Intelligent and ambitious

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Women who took their husband's name were judged as more

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caring and emotional (but less intelligent and ambitious)

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The ease with which relevant instances come to mind is influenced not only by the ____ ___ but also by factors such as how _____ and ______ the event is

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actual frequency; salient or noticable

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More easily imagined events are judged to be ______ _____ than other events.

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more likely

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(Lecture and Book) The tendency to judge the frequency or likelihood of an event by the ease with which relevant instances come to mind

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AVAILABILITY HEURISTIC

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The tendency to judge the frequency or likelihood of an event by the ease with which you can imagine (or mentally simulate) it

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SIMULATION HEURISTIC

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The simulation heuristic addresses these "if only" thoughts, also called counterfactual thoughts.

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simulation heuristic

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Information overload can result from a:

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1.) high rate of new information being added 2.) contradictions in available information, 3.)low signalto-noise ratio 4.) lack of an efficient method for comparing and processing different types of information

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(too much irrelevant information compared to the amount of relevant information),

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low signalto-noise ratio

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Having too much information to comprehend or integrate

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INFORMATION OVERLOAD

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the average American man has had sex with __ partners but the average American woman has had only __ partners

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20, 6

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People generally have access to two types of information:

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(a) statistical information from a large f number of people (b) case history information from a small number of people

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the actual likelihood of an event being true ______ when it becomes more specific

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declines

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The representativeness heuristic provides one possible explanation for the conjunction error.

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representativeness heuristic

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(Lecture and Book) the tendency to notice and search for information that confirms one's beliefs and to ignore information that disconfirms one's beliefs

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CONFIRMATION BIAS

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(Lecture and Book) the tendency to see an event as more likely as it becomes more specific because it is joined with elements that seem similar to events that are likely

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CONJUNCTION FALLACY

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(Lecture and Book) the tendency to overestimate the link between variables that are related only slightly or not at all

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ILLUSORY CORRELATION

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an illusory correlation that occurs after exposure to only one unusual behavior performed by only one member of an unfamiliar group

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ONE-SHOT ILLUSORY CORRELATION

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(Lecture and Book) the tendency to ignore or underuse base rate information and instead to be influenced by the distinctive features of the case being judged

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BASE RATE FALLACY

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Hot hand and Gambler's fallacy biases may both stem from the same source

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representativeness heuristic

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the tendency for gamblers who get lucky and their luck will continue

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HOT HAND

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(Lecture and Book) the tendency to believe that a particular chance event is affected by previous events and that chance events will "even out" in the short run

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GAMBLER'S FALLACY

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(Lecture and Book) the tendency to overestimate the number of other people who share one's opinions, attitudes, values, and beliefs

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FALSE CONSENSUS EFFECT

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The ______ provides one possible explanation of the false consensus effect.

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availability heuristic

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It I appears that people ________ consensus when it comes to their undesirable characteristics but _______ consensus when it comes to their desirable characteristics

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overestimate; underestimate

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the statistical tendency for extreme Scores or extreme behavior to be followed by others that are less extreme and closer to average

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STATISTICAL REGRESSION (REGRESSION TO THE MEAN)

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AII distortions are in the direction most…

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helpful for selfesteem.

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(Lecture and Book) the false belief that one can influence certain events, especially random or chance ones

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ILLUSION OF CONTROL

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(Lecture and Book) thinking based on assumptions that don't hold up to rational scrutiny

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MAGICAL THINKING

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when something becomes impure or unclean

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CONTAMINATION

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imagining alternatives to past or present events or circumstances

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COUNTERFACTUAL THINKING

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the false belief that it is better not to change one's first answer on a test t even if one starts to think that a different answer is correct

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FIRST INSTINCT FALLACY

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imagining alternatives that are better than actuality

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UPWARD COUNTERFACTUALS

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imagining alternatives that are worse than actuality

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DOWNWARD COUNTERFACTUALS

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One important difference between regrets and counterfactuals:

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regrets are feelings, counterfactuals are thoughts

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feeling sorry for one's misfortunes, limitations, losses, transgressions, shortcomings, or mistakes

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REGRET

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Evolutionary psychologists have argued that when it comes to the really lmportant decisions, those involving survival and reproduction,

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people make relatively few stupid decisions

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debiasing examples include:

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1.)encouraging people to consider multiple alternatives

2.) to rely less on memory

3.) to use explicit decision rules

4.) to search for disconfirmatory information

5.) to use meta-cognition

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literally means "thinking about \ thinking."

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Meta-cognition

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reducing errors and biases by getting people to use controlled processing rather than automatic processing

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DEBIASING

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reflecting on one's own thought processes

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META-COGNITION

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People think about _____ _____ more than any other topic, and probably more than about all other topics combined.

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other people

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People think about other people in order to ________, _________, or _________ other people.

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be accepted by, compete with, avoid

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The human mind is designed to participate in society, and this means its primary job is

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dealing with other people.

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(Lecture and Book) People generally prefer to conserve effort by relying on _____________ of thought when they can.

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automatic modes

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A violation of expectancies sparks _________ .

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Conscious thinking,

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At least three main types of goals guide how people think:

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1.) Find the right answer to some problem or question.

2.) Reach a particular, preferred conclusion.

3.) Reach a pretty good answer or decision quickly.

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The four elements that distinguish auromatic from controlled processes are

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intention, effort, control, and efficiency.

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_______ is the tendency for frequently or recently activated concepts to come to mind more easily.

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Priming

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______ is how something is presented.

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Framing

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In the counterregulation or "what the heck" effect, dieters eat more if they ________.

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believe they have broken their diets than if they are hungry.

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__________ are the inferences people make about events in their lives.

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Attributions

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The three types of covariation information are

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Consensus
Consistency
Distinctiveness

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The ___________ suggests that when people estimate how frequent or likely an event is, they use a starting point (called an anchor) and then make adjustments up and down from this · .

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anchoring and adjustment heuristic

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______ and _______ criteria can result in biased counts of sexual partners.

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Estimation and shifting criteria

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People generally pay the most attention to ___________ information.

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case history

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The _______________ (also called the better-thall-average effect and the Lake Wobegon effect) describes the finding that people tend to underestimate the number of people who share their most prized characteristics and abilities.

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false uniqueness effect

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One major evolutionary purpose of thinking is to decide how to

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respond when one's goals are blocked.

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The concept of contamination is related to what two things:

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1.) The irrational assumption that two objects that touch each other pass properties to one another. 2.) The irrational assumption that things that resemble each other share basic properties

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More often than not, heuristics provide __________, or at least answers that are _______.

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correct answers, answers that are good enough.

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The tendency to seek evidence that agrees with our position and dismiss evidence that does not.

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The Confirmation Bias

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The Confirmation Bias sways us to...

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• favor evidence that agrees with our position
• believe the future will bring new evidence to support it
• cling stubbornly and passionately to our stance
• adopt positions from traditions, religions and ideologies

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The tendency to take credit for desirable outcomes and blame others for undesirable ones.

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The Self-Serving Bias

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The tendency to mentally upgrade or downgrade an object when comparing it to a contrasting object.

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The Contrast Bias

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The tendency to underestimate the time is takes to complete a task.

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The Planning Fallacy

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The tendency for people to believe the world is "just" and therefore people "get what they deserve."

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The Just-World Bias

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The tendency to find losses twice as painful as we find gains pleasurable.

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The Loss Aversion Bias

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The tendency to do (or believe) things because many other folks do.

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The GroupThink Bias

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The tendency for beautiful people to receive more rewards than less attractive people.

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The Beautiful People Bias

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The tendency to recall an item that "stands out like a purple cow" more easily than other items in a group.

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The Von Restorff Effect

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The tendency to judge harmful actions as worse, or less moral, than equally harmful inactions.

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The Omissions Bias

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The tendency to marvel over coincidences and ignore probabilities .

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The Neglect-of-Probability Bias

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The tendency to place too much attention on information, even when it's barely relevant.

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The Information Overload Bias

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The tendency to "anchor" (rely too heavily) on one piece of information when making a decision.

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The Anchoring Effect

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The tendency for people to overestimate the duration or intensity of their future feelings.

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The Impact Bias

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The tendency for people to cozy up to people who look like themselves and pick on those who don't.

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The Look-Alikes Bias

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The tendency to discount or disbelieve an important and uncomfortable fact.

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The Denial Bias

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Avoiding a fact by lying.

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Denial of Fact

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Avoiding personal responsibility by blaming, minimizing or justifying.

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Denial of Responsibility

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Avoiding pain and harm by stating he/she was in a different state of awareness (such as alcohol or drug intoxication or on occasion mental health related).

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Denial of Awareness

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Avoiding looking at one's decisions leading up to an event or not considering one's pattern of decision-making and how harmful behavior is repeated.

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Denial of Cycle

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Denial of denial involves thoughts, actions and behaviors which bolster confidence that nothing needs to be changed in one's personal behavior.

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Denial of Denial

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The tendency to look at things from the point of view of your profession and forget a broader perspective.

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The Déformation Professionelle Bias

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The tendency to demand much more to give up an object than you would be willing to pay to acquire it.

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The Endowment Effect

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The tendency to inaccurately link an action and an effect.

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The Illusory-Correlation Bias

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The tendency for investors to react too slowly to changes in the market.

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The Conservatism Bias

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The tendency to view two options as more dissimilar when evaluating them together than separately.

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The Distinction Bias