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149 Cards in this Set
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- 3rd side (hint)
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carbon chemistry
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most diverse and versatile element; only 4 valence electrons so able to form many molecules and compounds;
organic compounds are all carbon based and one H+ molecule; methane is smallest carbon molecule; CH4 |
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ionic bonds
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attraction b/w cations and anions
attraction b/w metals and nm Metals lose; become + NM gain; become - |
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covalent bonds
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sharing of a pair of electrons on outer valence shell by 2 atoms;
single H-H or double 0=0 |
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valence electrons
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electrons in outer shell;
full outer shell is unreactive - 8A |
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electron shells
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when electrons lose energy, it 'falls back' to shell closer to nucleus; lost energy is released as heat to env.
shells: 2e, 8e, 8e - energy increase, greater 3 shells |
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electrons
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move at speed of light; attracted to +protons; only subatomic particle involved in chemical reactions
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Darwin
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wrote Origin of Species by Natural Selection - "decent with modification"
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molecules
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chemical structure consisting of two or more atoms
-come together to make cells |
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organelles
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various functional components that make up cells
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cells
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life's fundamental unit of structure and function; 4 types: muscle, neurons, connective and epithelial
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tissues
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a group of similar cells, make up organs
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organs and organ systems
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- a body part consisting of two or more tissues
-a team of organs that operate together to perform a function -work together to maintain homeostasis (overall internal env) |
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populations
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consists of all individuals of species living w/in the bounds of a specified area
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communities
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(sets of populations)
entire array of organisms inhabiting a particular ecosystem; #s of species |
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eosystems
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consists of living things in a particular area, and non living components of env w/which life interacts ex grasslands, coral reef, desert
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biosphere
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all env on earth inhabited by life
-include regions of land, most bodies of water and atmosphere |
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reproduction
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both sexually - an egg is fertilized
and asexually - organism reproduced on own (bacteria, paramecium) |
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3 Domains of Organisms
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Prokaryotic (unicellular and microscopic) 1. Bacteria-most diverse 2. Archaea-live in extreme envs
and Eukaryotic (single cell and multicellular |
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Eukaryotic Kingdoms
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Protista - uni and multi
Plantae - multi; photosynthesis Fungi - nutrients from earth Animalia - ingest animals |
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+ Feedback
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less common
end product uses enzyme to speed up production/produce more |
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- Feedback
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more common form of regulation
-accumulation of an end product inhibits enzyme and slows that process |
ex. breakdown of sugar generates chemical energy (ATP) excess accum of ATP feeds back and inhibits an enyme near beginning of pathway
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photosynthetic process
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-use sunlight energy to produce sugar
-use CO2 to make sugar, enter thru plants tissue; give off O2 |
6 CO3 + 6 H2O > C6H12O6 + 6 O2
carbon is taken in with water, sugar is made and oxygen is released |
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energy conversion
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sunlight > producers & (heat) - plants and other photosyn. > consumers (heat) - animals
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2 Processes of Ecodynamics
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1. Cycling of nutrients
2. Energy conversion |
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Homeostasis
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regulation; how things are controlled and systems work together
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evolutionary adaptation
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evolve ove many generations by reproductive success of thos individuals w/inheritable traits that are best suited for env.
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single, double and triple bonds
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-ane
-ene -yne |
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order
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basic structure of life
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electronegativity
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an atom's attraction for electrons in a covalent bond
- more electro- an atom, the more strongly it pulls shared electrons toward itself |
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based on molecular shape, in general, ...
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1. biological molecules recognize and interact in a certain way
2. molecules w/same shape can have similar bio. effects |
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chemical reactions
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making and breaking of chemical bonds
-reactants > products -can be reversed <> -nothing lost, only rearranged |
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reaction to completion
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all reactants are converted to products and used up; <> too
- chemical equilibrium is reached = reaction continues to move back and forth w/no effect on concentration |
increase concentration of reactants/products, increase # collisions, increase strength
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3 types of carbon models
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1. structural - sticks
2. ball and stick 3. spacefilling (all balls pressed together) |
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carbon skeleton rules
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1. single or double bonds in various places
2. vary in length 3. branched or unbranched 4. arranged in rings (cyclic) |
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hydrocarbons
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only C and H; release energy
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macromolecules
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lg bio. molecules, all polymers built from monomers:
carbs, proteins, nucleic acids and lipids |
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carbohydrates
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serve as fuel and building material; provide energy
are sugars (sugar polymers) mono-, di-, and poly- saccharides |
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saturated fatty acids
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sat. - have max # H atoms possible and no double bonds; ex meat, butter, chz, dairy
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unsaturated fatty acids
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unsat. - one ore more double bonds; ex margiane, plant oils, trans fat, omega 3 fats
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hydrophobic
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help maintain homeostasis; water fearing
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hydrophilic
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transport protein w/in membrane how water enters and exits cell; water loving
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nucleotide
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phosphate group - PO4
Nitrogenous base - A-T and C-G 5 Carbon Sugar base - ribose |
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structure of nucleic acids
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1. are polymers called polynucletides
2. made from monomers called nucleotides 3. consists of nitrogenous base, sugar base (pentose aka ribose), and phosphate group 4. portion of nucleotide w/o phosphate group in nucleoside |
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pyrimidines
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family of nitrogenous base; bonds with hydrogen
cytosine, thymine, uracil (RNA) |
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purines
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family of nitrogenous base; bonds wit hydrogen
adenine, guanine |
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DNA
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deoxyribose nucleic acids; double helix - each is polynucleotides spiraling on axis
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anit-parallel
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2 polynucleotides backbones run opposite
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DNA molecules contain
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genes
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Eukaryotic cells
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multicellular; plants and animals
has membranes, cytoplasm, organelles, nucleus w/DNA |
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Prokaryotic cells
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single cell; bacteria, paramecium
lack organelles, no nucleus, has nucleoid (cytoplasm fo cell where DNA floats) |
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hypothesis based inquiry
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If...then Logic; deductive
logic flows in opposite direction, from general to specific -predictions about what outcomes of exp or obs we should expect if a particular hypothesis in correct |
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hypothesis, must be...
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1. testable - a way to check for validity
2. falsifiable - obs/exp that could reveal if such an idea is actually not true 3. can formulate alternative hypothesis to falsify other candidate explanation |
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discovery science inquiry
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descriptive science of natural selection and processes thru obs and collecting data
inductive reasoning logic |
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data can be
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qualitative or quantitative
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inductive reasoning logic
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derived from generalizations based on obs
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CHERIE UESSS
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11 Unifying Themes of Biology;
Cell, Heritable info, Emergent properties, Regulation, Interaction w/env, Energy & life, Unity & diversity, Evolution, Structure & function, Scientific inquiry, Science tech society |
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Cells
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Prok and Euk
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Heritable info
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DNA and 4 nucleotides
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Emergent properies
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new properties that emerge w/each step upward in heirarchal of life, owing to arrangement and interactions of parts of complexity increases
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Regulation
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+ / - feedback; maintain homeostasis
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Interaction w/Env
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exchange of materials & flow of energy
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Energy & life
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sunlight to producers to consumes and back
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Unity & diversity
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the 3 domains
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Evolution
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explain unity & diversity; Darwin's theory of evolution
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radioactive isotopes
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decay spontaneously, giving off particles and energy; unstable, could form new element after decay; very detectable
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ex. dating fossils, tracing atoms thru metabolic process
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reductionism
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reduce complex systems to simpler components, more manageable to study
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ex. Watson & Crick extractDNA from cells to study/discover chemical basis for inheitance
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BEC POOT COM
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Levels of Bio Org.
Biosphere, Ecosystems, Communities, Populations, Organisms, Organs and organ systems, Tissues, Cells, Organelles, Molecules |
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growth & development controlled by...
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inherited information carried by genes
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energy processing
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-obtain food and convert to energy to function and do more work
-sugar is organism's energy source (ATP or glucose) for animals, and photosyn for plants |
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nonpolar covalent bonds
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atoms share the electron equally; basically every bond except ones with O2 or N2 w/H2
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polar covalent bonds
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one atom is more electronegative and atoms do not share equally
-must have O2 or N2 w/H2 |
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weak chemical bonds
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ionic and hydrogen
-reinforce shape of lg molecules and help molecules to adhere to each other |
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strong chemical bonds
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covalent bonds - which form cell's molecules
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hydrogen bonds
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form when an H atom covalently bond to electro- atom and attracted to another electro- atom; usually O2 and N2
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molecular shape and functions
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function is 100% dependent on shape
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molecular shape is determined by...
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position of atom's valence orbitals = linear H2, tetrahedron CH4 and V shape H2O
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3 formations of Carbon bonds
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1. tetravalence - ethane
2. tetrahedral - methane 3. flat - ethene |
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H O N w/C are ...
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building codes that governs architecture of living molecules
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structural isomer
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-# possible isomer increase as C skeleton increases in size
-differ in location of double bonds (different arrangements, same covalent bonds, differ covalent partners) |
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geometric isomer
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(skeletons differ spatial arrangements, same covalent partners)
-restricted by inflexibility to move or rotate bonds -cis=same, trans=opposite |
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enantiomers isomer
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skeletons with mirror images; L left, D right
-one side is active the other is inactive -imp in pharmaceutical because one may be harmful |
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isomers
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compounds that have same # atoms of same elements but structures are different and may have different prop
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H CCASPM
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7 functional groups that can attach to carbon skeletons;
Hydroxyl, Carbonyl, Carboxyl, Amino, Phosphate, Methyl |
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Hydroxyl group
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- -OH, alcohols, ex. ethanol
F: is polar and attracts water molecules, helping to dissolve compounds |
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Carbonyl group
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- C=O, Ketones and Aldehydes, ex. acetone and propanal respectively
F: structural isomers with diff prop |
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Ketones
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C=O bonds within carbon skeleton
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Aldehydes
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C=O bonds at end of carbon skeleton in carbonyl group
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carboxyl group
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- -COOH - when a hydroxyl and carbonyl group of both bonded in a c skeleton; carboxylic acids ex/ acetic acid
F: acts as an acid, in bond b/w H and O, helps H dissociate reversibly |
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amino group
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- -NH2; amines ex. glycine
F: acts as a base, can pick up protons from surrounding soln, from nonionized to ionized |
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sulfhydryl group
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- -SH; thiols ex. ethanethiol
F: two -SH can interact to help stabilize protein structure |
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phosphate group
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- -OPO3^2; one phosphorous atom to 4 oxygen atoms, 2 O w/- charges; organic phosphates ex. glycerol phosphate
F: make molecule of which is is a pat of anion; primary energy transferring molecule |
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methyl group
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- -CH3; menthylated compounds; ex methyl cytidine
F: helps molecules bond to DNA, effects genes, arrangement of methyl groups affects male and female sex hormones |
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ATP
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adenosine triphosphate - imp source of energy for cellular processes
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synthesis and breakdown of polymers
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dehydration reactions
hydrolysis use of enzymes |
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dehydration reactions
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or condensation; occurs when two monomers bond to form polymer thru loss of a water molecule
-water is removed -uses enzymes to speed up proces |
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hydrolysis
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adding water molecules to disassemble polymers
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monosaccharide
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simplest sugar; cannot be broken down by hydrolysis
ex. glucose - most common carbonyl group |
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disaccharide
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glycosidic linkage; forms a double sugar
ex. glucose + glucose = maltose glu + fruc = sucrose glu + galac = lactose |
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glycosidic linkage
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covalent bond formed by two monosaccharides by dehydration reaction
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polysaccharide
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lg + complex carbs; polymers of sugars; have storage and structural roles
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polysaccharide storage
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-starch - in plants. consists of glucose monomers
-glycogen - in animals, mainly in liver and muscle cells |
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polysaccharide structural support
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-cellulose - tough wall of plant cells, polymer of glucose formed by alpha and beta
-chitin - found in exoskeleton of arthopods and cell walls of fungi |
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A-T and C-G
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nucleotides; arrangement of these on DNA backbone encode genes and transmit info from parent to offspring
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genes
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a program of cell's production of protein
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protein
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in genes, builds and maintains cells
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genome
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genetic instruction an organism inherits; packed in chromosomes
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Ogre
OREGRRE |
7 characteristics of living organisms;
Order, Regulation, Energy processing, Growth and development, Reproduction, Response to env, Evolutionary adaptation |
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DNA
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Deoxyribose Nucleic Acids
-genes holds all genetic info w/sugar and phosphate backbone -directs synthesis of mRNA and tRNA -resides in chromosomes AT CG |
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double helix
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tow long chains of building blocks called nucleotides
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single strand
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one chain of DNA; genetic info is encoded in specific sequence of 4 nucleotides
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NLS
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nuclear localization sequence; protein must enter nucleus. This protects DNA by not allwoing in mutation or proteins that could damage all
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RNA
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AU CG bonds; controls protein synthesis which occurs in ribosomes
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what determines protein structure?
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-physical and chemical conditions
ex. changes in pH, salt concentration, temperature or other env factors |
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denaturation
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loss of protein's native structure making protein bio. inactive
- it unravels, loses shape |
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primary protein structure
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specific sequence of amino acids; not functional
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secondary protein structure
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found in most proteins, consists of coils and folds in polypeptide chain; not functional
a helix coils b pleated |
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tertiary protein structure
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functional; determined by interactions among various side chains (R groups)
-polypeptide |
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R Groups
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side groups; make 20 amino acids different b/w amino and carboxyl functional protein groups
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quarternary protein structure
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functional; results from multiple polypeptide chains; many pleats and coils
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peptide bonds form by...
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proteins as polymers; cells linking together by dehydration reactions
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poylpeptide chains are...
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polymers of amino acids; creating long chains of amino acids
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amino acids
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have carboxyl and amino groups; monomers of proteins; proteins constructed from 20 diff amino acids
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8 essential amino acids
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cant get them all thru diet, must have supplements
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enzymatic proteins
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selective acceleration of chemical reactions
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catalyze hydrolysis of polymers in food
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structural proteins
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support
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used in cocoons and webs, collagen and elastin, keratin
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storage proteins
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storage of amino acids
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seeds; casein, the protein in milk
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transport proteins
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transport of other substances
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hemoglobin
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hormonal proteins
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coordination of an organism's activities
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insulin
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receptor proteins
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response of cell chemical stimuli
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receptors buil into membrane of a nerve cell detect chemical signals released by other nerve cells
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contractile and motor proteins
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movement
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actin and myosin in movement of muscles; cilia and flagella
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defensive proteins
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protection against disease
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antibodies combat bacteria and viruses
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Proteins
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8 main functions; product of genes, made by DNA
-polymers constructed from amino acids -form enzymes -same thing as peptide |
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enzymes
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chemicals that change rate of chemical reaction w/o being changed in process
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steroids
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are lipids, types of hormones
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testerone
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type of hormone - made in testes and adenal glands, aids in muscle development, 2nd charact, make estrogen after breakdown
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synthetic anabolic steroids
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resemble testosterone hormone, but harmful
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lipids
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hydrophobic molecules; do not form polymers
-have little or no affinity for water |
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lipids are hydrophobic because...
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the consist mostly of hydrocarbons, which form nonpolar covalent bonds
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most important lipids are...
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fats, phospholipids and steroids
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fats
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-constructed from glycerol and fatty acids
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glycerol
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3 C alcohol with -OH group attached to each carbon
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fatty acid
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a carboxyl group attached to a long carbon chain
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fats separate from water because...
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water molecules form hydrogen bonds with each other and exclude the fats
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ester linkage
and it creates... |
3 fatty acids joined to glycerol
tryglyceride |
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phospholipids
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2 fatty acids and a phosphate group attached to glycerol
-2 fatty acids are hydrophobic but, phosphate group is hydrophilic |
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steroids
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have C skeleton of four fused rings
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cholesterol
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imp steroid, a component in animal cell membranes
- essential but too much may contribute to cardiovascular disease |
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hydrogenation
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adds hydrogen
converts unsat. to sat. fats make liquid fats, solid creates transfat |
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trans-sat. fats
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a type of unsatur. fat tha tis less healthy than sat. fat
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