Biology 241 Final

Front 1

Anatomical Position

Back 1

Subject stands erect facing the observer with the head level and the eyes facing directly forward. The feet are flat on the floor and directed forward, the upper limbs are at the sides with the palms turned forward.

Front 2

levels of body organization

Back 2

1.) chemical
2.) cellular
3.) tissue
4.) organ
5.) system
6.) organism

Front 3

differentiation

Back 3

the development of a cell from an unspecialized state to a specialized state

Front 4

responsiveness

Back 4

the body's ability to detect and respond to changes internally and externally

Front 5

homeostasis

Back 5

the condition of equilibrium in the body's internal environment

Front 6

negative feedback system

Back 6

reverses a change in a controlled condition
[e.g. blood pressure]

Front 7

positive feedback system

Back 7

strengthens/reinforces a change in one of the body's controlled conditions
[e.g. childbirth]

Front 8

intracellular fluid

Back 8

ICF
fluid within the cells

Front 9

extracellular fluid

Back 9

ECF
fluid outside body cells
differs depending on where it occurs in the body

Front 10

pH

Back 10

A solution's acidity or alkalinity is expressed on this scale [0-14]
pH <7 acidic
pH =7 neutral
pH >7 basic

Front 11

Phospholipids

Back 11

hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails

Front 12

three main parts of an animal cell

Back 12

plasma membrane
cytoplasm
nucleus

Front 13

plasma membrane

Back 13

Made up of a phospholipid layer, forms the cell's outer boundary and separates the cell's internal environment from the outside environment
5% glycolipids
20% cholesterol (contributes to fluidity)
Amphipathic: polar heads and nonpolar tails
Selectively permeable
More concentrated inside than outside the cell
More positive inside and more negative outside

Front 14

integral proteins

Back 14

Extend into or through the lipid bilayer among the fatty acid tails and are firmly embedded

Front 15

transmembrane proteins

Back 15

Span the entire lipid bilayer and protrude into both the cytosol and the extracellular fluid

Front 16

vesicular transportation

Back 16

endocytosis
exocytosis
transcytosis

Front 17

endocytosis

Back 17

A highly selective type of endocytosis by which cells take up specific ligands,
a vesicle forms after a receptor protein in the plasma membrane recognizes and binds to a particular particle in the extracellular fluid

Front 18

exocytosis

Back 18

Releases materials from a cell

Front 19

transcytosis

Back 19

vesicles undergo endocytosis on one side of a cell, move across the cell, and then undergo exocytosis on the opposed side

Front 20

active transport

Back 20

movement of substances against the concentration gradient
requires cellular energy (ATP)

Front 21

passive transport

Back 21

movement of substances down a concentration gradient until equilibrium is reached
no energy required

Front 22

factors that influence diffusion

Back 22

steepness of the concentration gradient
temperature
mass of the diffusing substance
surface area
diffusion distance

Front 23

transcription

Back 23

Occurs in the nucleus, the DNA is used as a template to make an RNA strand

Front 24

translation

Back 24

Occurs in the cytoplasm, the mRNA is used as a template by amino acids to produce a protein strand

Front 25

DNA nucleotides

Back 25

cytosine
guanine
thymine
adenine

Front 26

RNA nucleotides

Back 26

cytosine
guanine
thymine
uracil

Front 27

Mitosis

Back 27

The distribution of two sets of chromosomes into two separate nuclei [PMAT]

Front 28

prophase

Back 28

The chromatin condenses into chromosomes, the mitotic spindle begins to form, and the nuclear envelope disappears

Front 29

metaphase

Back 29

The microtubules of the mitotic spindle align the centromeres of the chromatid pairs at the metaphase plate

Front 30

anaphase

Back 30

The centromeres split, separating the two members of each chromatid pair and pulling them towards opposite poles of the cell

Front 31

telophase

Back 31

After chromosomal movement stops, the chromosomes uncoil and revert to chromatin. A nuclear envelope forms around each mass and the mitotic spindle breaks up

Front 32

tight junctions

Back 32

Fuse together the outer surfaces of adjacent plasma membranes to seal off passageways between adjacent cells

Front 33

adherens juntions

Back 33

attach both to membrane proteins and to microfiliments of the cytoskeleton to join two cells

Front 34

desmosomes

Back 34

Extend into the intercellular space between adjacent cell membranes and attach cells to one another

Front 35

hemidesmosomes

Back 35

Attach to intermediate filaments made of the protein keratin and anchor cells to the basement membrane

Front 36

gap junctions

Back 36

Connect neighbouring cells and allow the cells in tissue to communicate with one another and enable nerve or muscle impulses to spread rapidly among cells

Front 37

epithelial tissue

Back 37

tightly packed with little or no extracellular matrix

Front 38

connective tissue

Back 38

large amount of extracellular matrix that separates the cells which are usually widely scattered

Front 39

types of epithelial tissue

Back 39

-simple squamous epithelium (lines heart & blood vessels)
-simple cuboidal epithelium (kidney)
-simple columnar epithelium (& ciliated) (bronchioles)
-pseudostratified columnar epithelium (lines airways)
-stratified squamous epithelium (skin)
-stratified cuboidal epithelium (sweat glands)
-stratified columnar epithelium (esophageal glands)
-transitional epithelium (urinary bladder)

Front 40

exocrine gland secretion

Back 40

granular epithelium
produce substances (sweat) to help lower body temperature, oil, earwax, saliva or digestive enzymes

Front 41

types of connective tissue

Back 41

-areolar (in & around nearly every body structure)
-adipose (fat tissue)
-reticular (supporting frameworks)
-dense regular (tendons, ligaments, & aponeuroses)
-dense irregular (beneath skin & around muscles)
-elastic (lungs, arteries, trachea, bronchial tubes)

Front 42

stroma

Back 42

New cells originate by cell division from this supporting connective tissue

Front 43

stem cells

Back 43

immature, undifferentiated cells that divide to replace lost or damaged cells

Front 44

layers of the skin

Back 44

epidermis
dermis

Front 45

epidermal layer

Back 45

The superficial, thinner portion which covers the deeper layers of skin
(bottom to top): stratum basale, stratum spinosum, status granulosum, stratum lucidum, stratum corneum

Front 46

keratinization

Back 46

keratinocytes produce the protein keratin which helps protect the skin and underlying tissues from abrasions, heat, microbes, and chemicals. They also produce lamellar granules, which release a water-repellant sealant that decreases water entry and loss and inhibits the entry of foreign materials

Front 47

skin colour

Back 47

the amount of melanin causes the skin's colour to vary from pale yellow to reddish-brown to black
pheomelanin (yellow to red)
eumelanin (brown to black)

Front 48

deep wound healing

Back 48

inflammatory phase - formation of blood clot
migratory phase - clot becomes a scab, wound is filled with granulation tissue
proliferative phase - growth of epithelial cells beneath the scab
maturation phase - scab sloughs off once the epidermis has been restored

Front 49

fibrosis

Back 49

process of scar tissue formation

Front 50

types of scars

Back 50

hypertrophic - remains within the boundaries of the original wound
keloid/cheloid - extends beyond the original boundaries of the wound

Front 51

burn classification system

Back 51

first degree burn - epidermis
second degree burn - epidermis and dermis
third degree burn - epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous layers

Front 52

types of bone cells

Back 52

Osteogenic, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts

Front 53

osteogenic cells

Back 53

Precursor cells that develop into an osteoblast by cell division

Front 54

osteoblasts

Back 54

For the bone extracellular matrix, and develop into osteocytes

Front 55

osteocytes

Back 55

Maintain bone tissue, mature bone cells

Front 56

osteoclasts

Back 56

Take away components of bone derived from monocytes (resorption)

Front 57

hormones involved in bone formation

Back 57

parathyroid hormone (PTH)
calcitriol
calcitonin (CT)

Front 58

osteon

Back 58

Central canal [blood and lymphatic vessels found here]
concentric lamellae
lacunae [small spaces between the lamallae, house osteocytes]
canaliculi [small channels filled with extracellular fluid connecting the lacunae]
interstitial lamallae
Volkmann's canals (perforating) [allow transit of these vessels to the outer cortex of the bone]
circumferential lamallae [outer encircles the bone beneath the periosteum, inner encircles the medullary cavity]
perforating sharpey's fibres

Front 59

types of fractures

Back 59

open (compound) - simple fracture, no broken skin
comminuted - bone is splintered, crushed, or broken into pieces
greenstick - partial fracture
impacted - one end of the fractured bone is forcefully driven into the other
Pott - fracture to the distal end of the fibula
Colles' - fracture to the distal end of the radius

Front 60

function of the skeletal system

Back 60

support
protection
movement
mineral homeostasis
blood cell production
triglyceride storage

Front 61

anatomy of a long bone

Back 61

diaphysis
epiphyses
metaphyses
articular cartilage
periosteum
medullary cavity
endosteum

Front 62

types of bones

Back 62

long
flat
irregular
short
sesamoid

Front 63

fetal v. adult vertebral column

Back 63

fetal: Single concave curve
adult: Four curves, two concave and two convex
Primary: Thoracic and Sacral curves that retain the concave shape
Secondary: Cervical and Lumbar curves that grow to be convex

Front 64

scoliosis

Back 64

Lateral bending of the vertebral column in the thoracic region

Front 65

kyphosis

Back 65

Hunchback
Increase in the thoracic curve

Front 66

lordosis

Back 66

Increase in the lumbar curve
"hollow back"

Front 67

sequence of regions of the vertebral column

Back 67

cervical (7)
thoracic (12)
lumbar (5)
sacral (2)
[26 in all]

Front 68

male pelvis

Back 68

Heavy
Rough
Large
Vertical
Narrow true pelvis
Tilted forward
Pelvic inlet is heart shaped
<90 degree pubic arch angle

Front 69

female pelvis

Back 69

Small
Light
Large true pelvis
Tilted forward
Flared
Pelvic inlet is round or oval
>90 degree pubic arch angle
Wide sciatic notch

Front 70

directional terms

Back 70

Posterior
Anterior
Lateral
Medial
Superior
Inferior
Distal
Proximal
Contralateral
Ipsilateral
superficial
deep

Front 71

joints of the pectoral shoulder girdle

Back 71

sternoclavicular joint (sternum and clavicle)
acromioclavicular joint (scapula and clavicle)
glenohumeral joint (scapula and humerus)

Front 72

functional classification of joints

Back 72

Relates to the degree of movement the joint permits
Synarthrosis
Amphiarthrosis
Diarthrosis

Front 73

synarthrosis joints

Back 73

immovable joints

Front 74

amphiarthrosis joints

Back 74

slightly movable joints

Front 75

diathrosis joints

Back 75

freely movable joints
all are synovial joints

Front 76

lower limb bones

Back 76

femur (1)
patella (1)
tibia (1)
fibula (1)
tarsals (7)
metatarsals (5)
phalanges (14)
[30 in all]

Front 77

joint diseases

Back 77

Rheumatoid Arthritis
Osteoarthritis
Gouty Arthritis

Front 78

rheumatoid arthritis

Back 78

Joints are swollen, stiff and painful
Body attacks its own tissues
Inflammation of the joints
Loss of function
Occurs bilaterally

Front 79

osteoarthritis

Back 79

Due to wear and tear of the body
degenerative joint disorder
joint cartilage is gradually lost
ends of the bones are exposed
bones grow more and create spurs, which add to the discomfort
first the hips and the knees effected
mainly the articular cartilage

Front 80

gouty arthritis

Back 80

build up of uric acid in the blood
reacts with sodium and creates crystals that accumulate in the tissues of joints
kidneys and feet effected
associated with a lot of alcohol and red meat intake

Front 81

connective tissue layers

Back 81

epimysium
perimysium
endomysium

Front 82

epimesium

Back 82

The outermost layer of dense, irregular connective tissue, encircling the entire muscle

Front 83

perimysium

Back 83

A layer of dense, irregular connective tissue
Surrounds groups of 10-100 or more muscle fibres, separating them into bundles called fascicles

Front 84

endomysium

Back 84

Penetrates the interior of each fascicle and separates individual muscle fibre from one another
Reticular fibres

Front 85

sarcolemma

Back 85

The plasma membrane of a muscle cell

Front 86

sarcoplasm

Back 86

The cytoplasm of a muscle fibre

Front 87

T-tubles

Back 87

Tiny invaginations of the sarcolemma that tunnel in from the surface toward the centre of each muscle fibre

Front 88

myofilaments

Back 88

Protein structures within myofibrils
Thin filaments: composed mostly of protein actin
Thick filaments: composed mostly of the protein myosin
Both are directly involved in the contractile process
2 thin filaments for ever thick filament

Front 89

sarcomere

Back 89

The basic functional units of a myofibril
The filaments inside a myofibril are arranged in these compartments

Front 90

motor unit

Back 90

Consists of a somatic motor neuron plus all the skeletal muscle fibres it stimulates
A single one makes contact with an average of 150 skeletal muscle fibres
All of the muscle fibres in one unit contract in unison

Front 91

sarcomere regions

Back 91

Z disc - separates one sarcomere from the next
M line - hold the thick filaments together at the centre
I band - thin filaments
A band - extends the length of the thick filaments
H zone - thick filaments

Front 92

role of calcium in contraction

Back 92

An increase in Ca ion concentration in the sarcoplasm starts muscle contraction, and a decrease stops it
Stored inside the sarcoplasmic reticulum
Binds with troponin

Front 93

sliding filament theory

Back 93

1.) ATP hydrolysis: myosin heads hydrolyze ATP and become reoriented and energized
2.) Attachment of myosin to actin to form cross-bridges
3.) Power stroke: Myosin cross-bridges rotate towards the centre of sarcomere
4.) Detachment of myosin from actin: as myosin heads bind to ATP, the cross-bridges detach from actin

Front 94

Acetylcholinesterase

Back 94

Breaks down ACh after a short period of time (enzyme)

Front 95

neuromuscular junction

Back 95

NMJ
synapse between a somatic motor neuron and a skeletal muscle fibre

Front 96

blood types

Back 96

A, B, AB, O

Front 97

why is type O the 'universal donor'?

Back 97

type O blood has no antigens on it, so the antibodies of any other blood type would not attack it

Front 98

erythropoiesis

Back 98

Production of RBCs
Increased in low levels of O2
life span: 120 days

Front 99

polycythemia

Back 99

The percentage of RBCs is abnormally high
The hematocrit may be 65% or higher

Front 100

thrombocyte formation

Back 100

platelets
pluripotent stem cells - myeloid stem cells - megakaryoblasts - megakaryocytes - thrombocytes (platelets)
lifespan: 5-9 days

Front 101

function of plasma proteins

Back 101

antibodies or immunoglobulins
produced during immune responses to fight foreign substances

Front 102

function of hemoglobin

Back 102

transports oxygen through the blood and releases it into the interstitial fluid and then into the cells
transports 23% of CO2 out of the body
regulation of blood flow and blood pressure

Front 103

electrocardiogram (ECG)

Back 103

Recording of the electrical current as APs pass through the heart
P wave - atrial depolarization (atrial contraction)
QRS Complex - ventricular depolarization and atrial repolarization (ventricular contraction & atrial relaxation)
T wave - ventricular repolarization (right ventricular relaxation)
P-Q interval - conduction time from the beginning of atrial excitation to the beginning of ventricular excitation
S-T segment - ventricular fibres are depolarized during the plateau phase of the action potential
Q-T interval - time from the beginning of ventricular depolarization to the end of ventricular repolarization

Front 104

heart sounds

Back 104

'lubb' - closure of AV valves
'dupp' - closure of SL valves

Front 105

the path of blood through the pulmonary and systemic circulations

Back 105

Right atrium
Tricuspid valve
Right Ventricle
Pulmonary Valve
Pulmonary Trunk
Pulmonary Arteries
Pulmonary Capillaries
Pulmonary Veins
Left Atrium
Bicuspid Valve
Left Ventricle
Aortic Valve
Aorta
Systematic Arteries
Systematic Capillaries
Systematic Veins
Superior and Inferior Vena Cava
Coronary Sinus
Right atrium

Front 106

atrioventricular valves

Back 106

bicuspid and tricuspid

Front 107

semilunar valves

Back 107

aortic and pulmonary

Front 108

action potential through the heart

Back 108

step 1: Depolarization - threshold is reached and AP starts, opens Na+ gated channels (fast) and inflow into muscle fibre produced rapid depolarization
step 2: Plateau - maintains depolarization, Ca+2 gated channels (slow) open and inflow into cytosol through the sarcolemma into the cardiac fibre
step 3: Repolarization: Recovery of Resting Membrane Potential, K+ gated channels are opened and outflow closes Ca+2 and Na+ channels

Front 109

hypovolemic shock

Back 109

caused by decreased blood volume

Front 110

function of baroreceptors

Back 110

send impulses to the cardiovascular centre to help regulate blood pressure

Front 111

location of the cardiovascular centre

Back 111

the middle of the medulla oblongata

Front 112

signs and symptoms of shock

Back 112

systolic blood pressure lower than 90 mmHg
resting heart rate is rapid
weak pulse
cool, pale, and clammy skin
altered mental state
reduced urine formation
the person is thirsty
pH of blood is low
nausea

Front 113

response of the cardiovascular system to a decreased frequency of action potentials from the baroreceptors

Back 113

the cardiovascular centre decreases parasympathetic stimulation of the heart and increases sympathetic stimulation of the heart

Front 114

tunic layers of arteries

Back 114

tunica interna: endothelium, basement membrane, internal elastic lamina
tunica media: smooth muscle, external elastic lamina
tunica externa (elastic and collagen fibres)

Front 115

tunic layers of veins

Back 115

tunica interna: endothelium, basement membrane
tunica media: smooth muscle
tunica externa (elastic and collagen fibres)

Front 116

tunic layers of capillaries

Back 116

endothelium
basement membrane

Front 117

elastic arteries vs. muscular arteries

Back 117

elastic: largest, thin vessel walls, internal and external elastic laminae, "conducting arteries", help propel blood onward while the ventricles are relaxing
muscular: "distributing arteries", more smooth muscle and fewer elastic fibres, maintain proper vascular tone

Front 118

filtration

Back 118

the movement of fluid through the walls of the capillary into the interstitial fluid

Front 119

reabsorption

Back 119

the movement of fluid from the interstitial fluid back into the capillary

Front 120

epinephrine

Back 120

Adrenalin
Released from the adrenal medulla as an endocrine auto regulatory response to sympathetic stimulation
Increase cardiac output by increasing rate and force of heart contractions

Front 121

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Back 121

Released from the posterior pituitary gland in response to dehydration or decreased blood volume
Causes vasoconstriction, increases BP

Front 122

atrial naturetic peptide (ANP)

Back 122

A natural diuretic polypeptide hormone released by cells of the cardiac atria
Participates in auto regulation by lowering blood pressure (vasodilation) and reducing blood volume (promoting loss of salt and water as urine)

Front 123

fate of lipids

Back 123

may be oxidized to produce ATP
structural molecules or molecules to synthesize other essential substances
if there is no immediate need for them, they are stored in adipose tissue

Front 124

lipid profile test

Back 124

LDL = Total cholesterol + HDL + Triglycerides

Front 125

ATP breakdown into ADP and phosphate

Back 125

ATP = ADP + P + energy

Front 126

glucose movement across the plasma membrane

Back 126

secondary active transport or facilitated diffusion

Front 127

catabolism

Back 127

chemical reactions that break down complex organic molecules into smaller ones

Front 128

anabolism

Back 128

chemical reactions that combine simple molecules and monomers to form the body's complex structural and functional components

Front 129

oxidation

Back 129

the removal of electrons from an atom or molecule
decrease in potential energy

Front 130

reduction

Back 130

addition of electrons to a molecule
increase in potential energy

Front 131

chylomicrons

Back 131

transportation of dietary lipids

Front 132

examples of elastic arteries

Back 132

aortic
pulmonary
brachiocephalic
subclavian
common carotid
common iliac

Front 133

cardiac output

Back 133

stroke volume x heart rate
total blood flow