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294 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What does the olfactory epithelium cover |
Inferior cribiform plate and ethmoid bone |
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What are the types of cells in olfactory epithelium? |
Olfactory sensory neurons Supporting columnar epithelium cells Basal epithelium cells Olfactory glands |
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What do olfactory glands produce |
Mucus to dissolve odorants |
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Where is the site of olfactory transduction |
On non-motile Cilia of olfactory epith |
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What cranial nerve stimulates olfactory glands |
Cn 7 |
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Explain the physiology of olfaction |
Odorants bind olfaction sensory neurons to release cAMP. cAMP opens Na and Ca channels causing a graded potential |
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Explain the olfactory nervous pathway |
- axons from olfactory neurons form cn1 which synapse with mitral cells in the olfactory bulb - 2nd order neurons form olfactory tract which synapses with primary olfactory area of temporal lobe |
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What are the 4 types of papillae on the tongue |
Filiform (no taste buds), vallate, fungiform, foliate |
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Function of filliform papillae on tongue |
Increase friction of tongue to move food |
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What are the 3 types of cells in taste buds |
Gustatory receptor cell with gustatory microvilli, supporting epithelial cell, basal epithelial cell |
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What are olfactory sensory neurons |
Bipolar neurons with non-motile olfactory cilia |
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Where to tastants bind |
Receptors on gustatory hairs |
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What are the different flavors and tastants |
Salty: Na Sour: H Sweet, bitter, umami: inositol triphosphate |
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Explain physiology behind taste |
Receptor potential in gustatory cell triggers neurotransmitter release leading to action potential in 1st order neuron |
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Explain the taste pathway |
1st order neurons in cranial nerves 7,9,10 synapse in the gustatory nucleus in the medulla oblongata. Impulses then travel through the thalamus to the primary gustatory area |
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Name the accessory structures of the eye |
Eyelids, eyelashes and eyebrows, conjunctiva, tarsal plate, extraocular muscles |
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What is the conjunctiva of the eye |
A thin protective mucous membrane that lines the eyelids and sclera |
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Location of fxn of tarsal glands of eyes |
In tarsal plate, lubricates eyes |
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Fxn of the tarsal plate of the eye |
Give shape to the eyes |
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What is the lacrimal apparatus |
A group of structures that produce and drain lacrimal fluid |
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What is a chalazion of the eye |
Blockage of the tarsal gland |
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Name the 3 layers of the eyeball superficial to deep |
Fibrous, vascular, and inner |
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What composes the fibrous layer of the eyeball |
Cornea and sclera |
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What composes the vascular layer of the eyeball |
Choroid, ciliary body, and iris |
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What composes the inner layer of the eyeball |
Retina |
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What is the cornea |
Thin transparent layer above iris |
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What are the 3 layers of the cornea from superficial to deep |
Nonkeratinized stratified squamous, collagen fibers and fibroblasts, simple squamous epith |
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What is a keratoconus cornea |
A cone shaped cornea from bulging |
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What composes the cornea |
Dense connective tissue |
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What is the choroid |
Vascular inner layer that provides nutrients to the retina |
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What composes the ciliary body |
Melanocytes and ciliary processes |
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Functions of the ciliary body of the eye |
Secrete aqueous humor and attach to the lens with zonular fibers |
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What is the function of the ciliary muscle |
Change shape of eye lens |
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Explain the function of the iris |
Regulate the amount of light entering the eye |
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What muscles of the iris contract in dim vs bright light |
Bright: circular muscles contract Dim: radial muscles contract |
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What cranial nerve innervates the muscles of the iris |
Cn 3 |
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What is the macula lutea of the retina |
Center of the retina |
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What is the fovea centralis of the retina |
A small depression in center of macula lutea where vision is most clear |
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Where is the blind spot of the eye |
Optic disc |
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What is the melanin containing epith of the retina |
Pigmented layer |
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What is the bipolar cell layer |
Layer of ganglia where 1st order neurons form optic nerve |
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What is retinal detachment |
When neural layer detaches from the pigmented layer and fluid fills the gap |
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What composes the anterior segment of the eye |
Anterior chamber between cornea and iris, posterior chamber between iris and lens |
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What fills the anterior segment of the eye |
Aqueous humor |
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What composes the posterior segment of the eye |
The space between the lens and the retina filled with vitreous humor |
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What is the function of vitreous humor |
To hold the retina against the choroid |
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What is intraocular pressure |
Pressure produced by aqueous and vitreous humors to maintain shape of the eye |
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What is glaucoma |
High intraocular pressure from buildup of aqueous humor that damages neurons of the retina |
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What forms the lens of the eye |
Clear proteins: crystallins |
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Name the 3 processes in vision physiology |
Refraction of light by cornea and lens, accommodation of lens, constriction of pupil |
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What occurs in refraction in vision |
Focusing of light done mainly by cornea to focus on fovea centralis |
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What occurs in lens accommodation in vision |
Change of lens shape: - lens flattens and zonular fibres taut when viewing distant objects - lens rounder and zonular fibres relaxed when close viewing |
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What do photopigments consist of |
Rhodopsin (rods) or photopsin (cones) and retinal |
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What occurs when photopigments bleach |
Retinal separates from the opsin making the pigment nonresponsive |
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What is isomerization of photopigments |
When light causes retinal to change shape to produce a graded potential |
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What what changes retinal back to original shape after isomerization |
Retinal isomerase |
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What is phototransduction |
Process of light energy being converted to receptor potential |
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How does phototransduction work |
When light activates photoreceptor: hyperpolarizing receptor potential produced to stop release of glutamate on bipolar cells which would inhibit impulse conduction |
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What are the two visual fields |
Temporal and nasal |
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Which visual field synapses ipsilaterally in the occipital lobe |
Nasal |
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What are the 3 main regions of the ear |
External ear, middle ear, internal ear |
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Function of external ear |
Collect sound and transmit to middle ear |
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What composes the external ear |
Auricle: ear pinnae External acoustic meatus Tympanum |
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What composes the middle ear |
Malleus, incus, stapes, eustachian tube, stapedius muscle, tensor tympani |
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What is the function of the stapedius and tensor tympani muscles |
To protect against loud noise by dampening vibrations in tympanum and stapes |
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What are the two divisions of the inner ear |
Outer bony labyrinth, inner membraneous labyrinth |
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What fills the bony labyrinth and membraneous labyrinth |
Perilymph and endolymph |
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What composes the bony labyrinth of the ear |
Semicircular canals, vestibule, cochlea |
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Name the 3 fluid filled channels of the cochlea, and what they are filled with |
Scala vestibuli ends at vestibular window - perilymph Scala tympani ends at cochlear window - perilymph Cochlear duct - endolymph |
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What membrane separates the cochlear duct and Scala vestibuli |
Vestibular membrane |
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What membrane separates cochlear duct from Scala tympani |
Basilar membrane |
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What membrane does the spiral organ rest on |
Basilar membrane |
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Explain physiology of hearing from stapes to receptor potential |
- stapes vibrates vestibular window causing fluid pressure waves in perilymph of Scala vestibuli- pressure waves move vestibular membrane, creating pressure waves in endolymph of cochlear duct- pressure waves move vestibular membrane, creating pressure waves in endolymph of cochlear duct- pressure waves vibrate basilar membrane causing hair cells to rub against tectorial membrane, bending the stereocilia, inducing a receptor potential - stapes vibrates vestibular window causing fluid pressure waves in perilymph of Scala vestibuli- pressure waves move vestibular membrane, creating pressure waves in endolymph of cochlear duct- pressure waves move vestibular membrane, creating pressure waves in endolymph of cochlear duct- pressure waves vibrate basilar membrane causing hair cells to rub against tectorial membrane, bending the stereocilia, inducing a receptor potential - stapes vibrates vestibular window causing fluid pressure waves in perilymph of Scala vestibuli- pressure waves move vestibular membrane, creating pressure waves in endolymph of cochlear duct- pressure waves move vestibular membrane, creating pressure waves in endolymph of cochlear duct- pressure waves vibrate basilar membrane causing hair cells to rub against tectorial membrane, bending the stereocilia, inducing a receptor potential |
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How do hair cells of the cochlea convert vibration to action potential |
Tip link proteins link mechanically gated channels for K+ to the tallest stereocilium - when stretched the gates open, depolarizing; when slack, gates fully close, hyperpolarizing |
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Explain the auditory pathway |
Cochlear branch of cn 8 synapses in cochlear nuclei of medulla oblongata, then ascend through the thalamus to the primary auditory cortex of temporal lobe |
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Name the two otolithic organs of the inner ear |
Utricle and saccule |
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What is a macula of the inner ear |
Hair cells with stereocilia covered by an otolithic membrane containing otoliths |
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How does a macula sense head movement |
Head movement induces movement of the otolithic membrane causing stereocilia to bend and induce an impulse in the vestibular branch of cn 8 |
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How do semicircular canals sense acceleration and deceleration |
Endolumph moves relative to canals due to inertia, moving past cupula in ampulla causing a cell depolarization |
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What is an ampulla of the inner ear |
A dilation of the semicircular canals where cupula are present |
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Explain the nervous pathway for equilibrium |
Vestibular branch of cn 8 ascends to vestibular nucleus in medulla, then ascends through cerebella peduncles to the cerebellum to be passed to cranial nerves for eye, head, and neck movement |
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List functions of hormones |
Regulate internal chemistry, metabolism, smooth muscle contraction, immune fxn, or body clock Control growth and development Regulate reproductive sys |
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Contrast circulating vs local hormones |
Circulating are secreted into interstitial fluid and diffuse into blood while local hormones stay in interstitial fluid |
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What are the two types of local hormones |
Autocrine and paracrine |
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What are the two chemical classes of hormones and how do they differ in transport |
Lipid soluble bind transport proteins while water soluble freely circulate in blood plasma |
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What are the different lipid soluble hormones |
Steroids, thyroid hormones, nitric oxide, eicosanoid hormones, |
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What are the functions of transport proteins for hormones |
To increase hormone solubility, decrease loss by filtration by increasing hormone size, provide a reserve of hormones in the blood |
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Where do lipid soluble hormones bind vs water soluble |
Water soluble: cell membrane surface Lipid soluble: cell cytoplasm or nucleus |
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What are the different water soluble hormones |
Amine hormones: norepinephrine, dopamine, histamine, serotonin Peptide hormones |
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How does the action of water soluble hormones differ from lipid soluble |
Water soluble bind surface receptors, lipid soluble binds cytoplasmic receptors Water soluble uses adenyl cyclase to active 2nd messengers to activate protein kinases for physiological change |
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Contrast synergistic and antagonistic hormone activity |
Synergistic: hormones have additive effects Antagonistic: hormones have subtractive effects |
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What does level of activation by hormone rely on |
Hormone concentration, number of receptors, influence of other hormones |
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What are the three stimuluses for hormone release |
Humoural stim, neural stim, hormonal stim |
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How does the hypothalamus control anterior ptuitary hormone secretion? |
By secreting releasing and/or inhibiting hormones into the hypophyseal portal system |
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What are the 5 releasing hormones of the hypothalamus |
Growth hormone releasing hormone Thyrotropin releasing hormone Corticotropin releasing hormone Prolactin releasing hormone Gonadotropin releasing hormone |
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What are the two inhibiting hormones produced in the hypothalamus |
Growth hormone inhibiting hormone Prolactin inhibiting hormone |
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What are the 7 hormones secreted by the anterior ptuitary gland |
Growth hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone, follicle stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, Prolactin, adrenocorticotrophic hormone, melanocyte stimulating hormone |
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Hypothalamic cell that secretes growth hormone |
Somatotrophic cell |
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Growth hormone function |
Stimulate production of insulin-like growth factors |
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Target tissues of growth hormone |
Liver, skeletal muscle, cartilage, bones |
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Effects of insulin-like growth factors |
Increase cell growth and division by increasing a.a. uptake and protein synthesis, inhibiting protein catabolism, stimulating glycogen breakdown, and stimulating lipolysis |
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What occurs from hypersecretion of growth hormone before epiphyseal plates close? |
Gigantism |
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What happens from hypersecretion of growth hormone after epiphyseal plates close |
Acromegaly - hands, feet, and face still respond to gh |
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What is the diabetogenic effect from excess growth hormone? |
Growth hormone raises blood glucose levels, inducing hyperglycemia. This causes continuous release of insulin causing beta-cell burnout preventing further release causing diabetes mellitus |
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How is growth hormone secretion controlled |
By presence of growth hormone releasing hormone or growth hormone inhibiting hormone |
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What stimulates secretion of growth hormone? |
Hypoglycemia, low fatty acid blood levels, high a.a blood levels, sympathetic activity, deep sleep, testosterone, estrogen, thyroid hormones |
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What triggers release of thyroid stimulating hormone |
Thyrotropin releasing hormone |
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What is the function of thyroid stimulating hormone |
Stimulate production and release of thyroxine and triiodothyronine |
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What does gonadotropin releasing hormone trigger the release of |
Follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone from anterior ptuitary |
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What regulates thyrotropin releasing hormone and thyroid stimulating hormone |
Concentrations of triiodothyronine and thyroxine - high inhibits, low stims |
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What does follicle stimulating hormone do in males and females |
Females: stimulates oocyte maturation and estrogen production Males: stimulates sperm production |
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Function of luteinizing hormone in males and females |
Females: stimulates ovulation and formation of corpus luteum Males: stimulates testosterone production |
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What inhibits gonadotropin releasing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone release? |
High levels of estrogen in females and testosterone in males |
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What controls Prolactin release |
Prolactin releasing hormone and Prolactin inhibiting hormone from hypothalamus |
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What cells release prolactin in anterior ptuitary |
Prolactin cells |
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What hormones are used in milk production and ejection |
Prolactin for production and oxytocin for ejection |
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What occurs from hypersecretion of prolactin |
Females: galactorrhea and amenorrhea Males: erectile dysfunction |
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What stimulates adrenocorticotrophic hormone release |
Corticotropin releasing hormone from hypothalamus |
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What cells secrete adrenocorticotrophic hormone |
Corticotrophs in ant. Ptuitary |
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Target tissue of adrenocorticotrophic hormone and effect |
Adrenal cortex to produce glucocorticoids |
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What stimulates melanocyte stimulating hormone |
Corticotropin releasing hormone from hypothalamus |
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What cells release melanocyte stimulating hormone |
Corticotrophs of ant. Ptuitary |
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What hormone inhibits melanocyte stimulating hormone release? |
Dopamine |
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Effect of melanocyte stimulating hormone |
Increasing skin pigment |
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Hormones released by posterior ptuitary |
Antidiuretic hormone, oxytocin |
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Where are the hormones stored and released by posterior ptuitary produced |
Hypothalamus |
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What cells synthesize posterior ptuitary hormones |
Neurosecretory cells of hypothalamus |
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Function of Antidiuretic hormone |
Reduce water loss in urine, vasoconstriction to increase blood pressure |
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Target tissues of Antidiuretic hormone |
Kidneys, smooth muscle of arterioles |
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What is diabetes insipidus |
Overexcretion of urine from hyposecretion of Antidiuretic hormone |
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Functions of oxytocin |
During delivery: enhances muscle contraction of uterus After delivery: uterine contractions for expulsion of placenta Stimulate milk ejection from breasts |
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What compound stored in the follicle of the thyroid is used to synthesize thyroid hormones |
Thyroglobulin |
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What cells of the thyroid produce calitonin |
C-thyrocytes |
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Function of calcitonin |
Lower blood calcium |
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List the hormones produced by the thyroid gland |
Triiodothyronine, thyroxine, calcitonin |
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What stimulates release of thyroid releasing hormone |
Low blood glucose levels or low metabolic rate |
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What is the target tissue of thyrotropin releasing hormone and effect |
Thyrotropic cells of the anterior ptuitary to release thyroid stimulating hormone |
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What is the target tissue of thyroid stimulating hormone and it's effect |
Thyroid follicular cells in the thyroid to release thyroid hormones |
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How are thyroid hormones synthesized |
T-thyrocytes trap and oxidize iodide, then bond to tyrosine to form colloid. Colloids couple to form triiodothyronine and thyroxine |
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What controls thyroid hormone secretion |
Thyrotropin releasing hormone secreted by hypothalamus when thyroid hormone levels are low. Secretion inhibited by high levels of thyroid hormones |
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What are the effects of thyroid hormones |
Systemic increase in basal metabolic rate, upregulation of beta-adrenergic receptors for epinephrine and norepinephrine, and additive effects with growth hormone and insulin like growth factors |
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What stimulates the release of calcitonin |
High calcium in blood |
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What tissue releases calcitonin |
Parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland |
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Target tissue and effect of calcitonin |
Stimulates osteoblasts to take up calcium from blood and deposit in bone |
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What is grave's disease |
Autoimmune disease caused by excess thyroxine that produces antibodies that mimic thyroid stimulating hormone. Results in weight loss and edema behind eyes |
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What is goiter disease |
Enlarged thyroid gland |
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What stimulates release of parathyroid hormone |
Low calcium in blood |
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What cells release parathyroid hormone |
Principal cells |
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Target tissues and effect of parathyroid hormone |
Kidneys: slow calcium and magnesium loss, promote calitriol formation Osteoclasts: increase cell count and activity, increase bone resorption to increase blood-calcium |
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Result of hypoparathyroidism |
Muscle twitches/spasms |
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Effects of hyperparathyroidism |
High blood-calcium, weak bones, kidney stones |
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What are the two glandular regions of the adrenal glands |
Outer cortex, inner medulla |
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What hormones does the outer cortex of the adrenal glands secrete |
Steroid hormones |
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What hormones does the inner medulla of the adrenal glands secrete |
Epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine in small quantities |
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Name the 3 zones of the outer cortex of the adrenal gland |
Outer glomerulosa, middle fasciculata, inner reticularis |
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What hormones does the outer glomerulosa of the adrenal cortex produce and its effects |
Mineralcorticoids that affect mineral homeostasis |
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Hormones and their effects from the fasciculata zone of the adrenal cortex |
Cortisol and glucocorticoids to affect glucose homeostasis and the stress response |
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Hormones and their effects from the reticularis zone of the adrenal cortex |
Androgens involved in development of male features |
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What are the 3 glucocorticoid hormones |
Cortisol, corticosterone, cortisone |
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How do glucocorticoids help resist stress |
Promote fat and protein breakdown for atp, stimulate gluconeogenesis, induce vasoconstriction |
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What is the stimulus and cells for release of adrenocorticotrophic hormone |
Low blood glucose for release from corticotrophic cells of anterior ptuitary |
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What is the target tissue and effect of adrenocorticotrophic hormone |
Cells in Zona fasciculata of adrenal cortex for cortisol production |
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What is Cushing's syndrome |
Hypersecretion of cortisol resulting in hyperglycemia, poor wound healing, and fat redistribution |
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What regulates glucocorticoids? |
Low blood glucose stims for adrenocorticotrophic hormone release from hypothalamus, high blood glucose inhibits release |
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Target tissues of mineralcorticoids and effects |
Distal kidney tubules and collecting ducts to regulate sodium and potassium homeostasis |
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What stimulates renin angiotensin aldosterone pathway and it's effects |
Dehydration, low blood sodium, or low blood pressure - results in increased sodium reabsorption and water reabsorption |
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Main androgen from adrenal cortex |
Dehydroepiandrosterone |
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What cells in adrenal medulla secrete hormones |
Chromaffin cells |
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What ate the 4 types of Endocrine cells in pancreatic islets |
Alpha cells, beta cells, delta cells, pancreatic polypeptide cells |
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What do alpha pancreatic islets cells secrete and effect |
Glucagon to raise blood glucose |
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Hormone from beta pancreatic islets cells and effect |
Insulin to lower blood glucose |
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Hormone from delta pancreatic islets cells and effects |
Somatostatin to inhibit glucagon, insulin, and growth hormone secretion |
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Hormone from pancreatic polypeptide cells of islets and effect |
Pancreatic polypeptide to inhibit secretion of somatostatin |
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What differentiates diabetes mellitus type 1 from type 2 |
Type 1: absolute insulin deficiency from autoimmune attack of beta cells Type 2: downregulation of receptors to insulin |
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What 5 hormones do ovaries secrete |
Estradiol, estrone, progesterone, inhibin, relaxin |
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Function of estrogens and progesterone |
Progesterone and estrogens regulate reproductive cycle, maintain pregnancy, prepare mammary glands |
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Effect of inhibin secretion from ovaries and testes |
Inhibits follicle stimulating hormone secretion |
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Effect of relaxin secretion from ovaries |
Dilate cervix during pregnancy, increases flexibility at pubic symphysis |
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Hormones produced by testes |
Testosterone and inhibin |
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Function of testosterone |
Regulate descent of testes, sperm production, maintenance of male secondary sex traits |
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What cells produce melatonin |
Pinealocytes of the pineal gland |
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What are the effects of thymus produced hormone |
T-lymphocyte activation and maturation |
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Hormone released from the heart and stim for release |
Atrial natriueretic peptide release stimmed by high blood pressure |
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Target tissue and effect of atrial natriuretic peptide |
Increases sodium and water secretion at nephron |
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Hormone released by kidney and stim |
Hypoxia stims release of erythropoeitin |
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Name the two types of stress |
Eustress and distress |
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What is the main regulator of the stress response |
Hypothalamus |
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Name the 3 stages of stress response |
Fight or flight, resistance reaction, and exhaustion |
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What occurs in the fight or flight stage of the stress response |
Hypothalamus stimulates for resources for immediate action, sympathetic nervous system increases glucose supply to organs, renin angiotensis aldosterone pathway activates for water retention and high blood pressure |
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What occurs in the resistance reaction of the stress response |
Corticotropin releasing hormone, growth hormone releasing hormone, and thyrotropin releasing hormone are secreted to increase glucose and atp for active cells in specific organs |
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What occurs in the exhaustion stage of the stress response |
Resistance stage fails from prolonged exposure to hormones, immune system suppressed and muscles begin to waste |
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What are the 4 layers of the gi tract |
Mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, serosa |
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What are the 3 parts of the mucosa layer of the gi tract |
Epithelium, lamina propria, muscularis mucosa |
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What is the function of the muscularis mucosa of the mucosa gi layer |
Form folds to increase surface area |
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What gi layers contains neural networks and names of neural network |
Submucosa contains submucosal neural plexus Muscular layer contains myenteric neural plexus |
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What gi layer forms the visceral peritoneum |
Serosa |
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Name the 4 parts of the enteric nervous system |
Myenteric neural plexus Submucosal plexus Interneurons of enteric nervous system Sensory neurons of enteric nervous system |
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Function of the myenteric plexus |
Gi tract motility |
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Function of submucosal plexus |
Secretory control of gi organs |
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Function of enteric nervous system interneurons |
Connect myenteric and submucosal plexuses |
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Function of enteric nervous system sensory neurons |
Sensory receptors in mucosa epithelium detect stims in gi lumen |
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Function of the autonomic nervous system in gi tract |
Vagus nerve innervates most of gi except last half of large intestine Ans increases ens activity |
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Function of cns in gi tract |
Voluntary movements - ie chewing, swallowing |
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What is the peritoneum |
Largest Serous membrane |
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What are the two parts of the peritoneum |
Visceral, parietal |
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Function of the parietal peritoneum |
Line abdominopelvic cavity |
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Function of visceral peritoneum |
Cover viscera |
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What is the peritoneal cavity |
Cavity between visceral and parietal peritonea |
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What is the term for organs outside of visceral peritoneum |
Retroperitoneal organs |
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List retroperitoneal organs |
Kidneys, pancreas, dupdenum |
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Function of peritoneal folds |
Act as route for blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves to the gi tract, anchor organs |
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List the five peritoneal folds |
Greater omentum, lesser omentum, falciform ligament, mesentery, mesocolon |
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Largest peritoneal fold |
Greater omentum |
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Peritoneal folds that attaches liver to anterior abdominal wall |
Falciform ligament |
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Peritoneal fold that connects stomach and duodenum to liver |
Lesser omentum |
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Peritoneal fold that attaches jejunum and ileum to posterior abdominal wall |
Mesentery |
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Peritoneal fold that binds transverse colon and sigmoid colon to posterior abdominal wall |
Mesocolon |
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What is the fauces of the mouth |
Opening between oral cavity and oropharynx |
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List components of saliva |
Immunoglobulin A, lysozyme, salivary amylase |
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What controls salivation |
Autonomic nervous system: sympathetic inhibits, parasympathetic promotes |
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What are the muscles of the tongue for movement and speech |
External and internal intrinsic muscles |
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Enzyme secreted by lingual glands |
Lingual lipase |
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What is the adventitia of the esophagus |
Areolar connective tissue that attaches esophagus to structures |
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What is gastrointestinal reflux disease |
Failure of lower esophageal sphincter - acid irritates esophagus |
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What are the 4 main parts of the stomach |
Cardia, fundus, body, pyloric |
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What are the 3 exocrine glands of the stomach and their secretions |
Mucous neck cells: mucous Parietal cells: hcl Chief cells: pepsinogen and gastric lipase |
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What is the enteroendrocrine glandular cell of the stomach and their secretion |
G cells secrete gastrin into blood |
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Function of gastrin from g cells of stomach |
Stimulate secretion of hcl and pepsinogen, relax pyloric sphincter, increase motility |
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What do enteric reflexes induce |
Peristaltic movement |
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What are the enzymes in pancreatic juice |
Pancreatic amylase, pancreatic lipase, ribonuclease, deoxyribonuclease, trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidase, proelastase |
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What deactivates pepsin in the duodenum |
High pH |
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What are the two regions of the pancreas and what do they produce |
Acini: pancreatic juice Islets of langerhans: hormones |
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What separates the two lobes of the liver |
Falciform ligament |
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What is the major functional cell of the liver? |
Hepatocytes |
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Hepatocyte function |
Secrete bile |
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What is the 3d arrangement of hepatocytes |
Hepatic laminae |
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Name the canal that hepatocytes secrete bile into |
Bile canaliculi |
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What are the blood capillaries between hepatic laminae |
Hepatic sinusoids |
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What are the phagocytic cells in hepatic sinusoids |
Stellate reticuloendothelial cells |
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What are the two blood supplies yo the liver |
Oxy blood from the hepatic artery, deoxy blood from the hepatic vein |
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Function of the gallbladder |
Store and concentrate bile |
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Function of bile salts |
Emulsify fats to assist digestion and absorption |
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What are the 3 sections of the small intestine |
Duodenum, jejunum, ileum |
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What structures facilitate digestion and absorption in the small intestine |
Circular folds, intestinal villi with microvilli |
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What are the 3 enteroendrocrine cells of the small intestine and their secretions |
S cells: secretin Cck cells: cholecsystokinin K cells: glucose dependent insulinotropic peptide |
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What are paneth cells of the small intestine |
Phagocytic cells that secrete lysozyme |
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What do duodenal glands secrete |
Alkaline mucous |
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What are the carbohydrate digesting enzymes of the small intestine |
Alpha dextrinase, Maltase, sucrase, lactase |
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What are the protein digesting enzymes of the small intestine |
Aminopeptidase, dipeptidase |
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What are the nucleic acid digesting enzymes of the small intestine |
Nucleosidases, phosphatases |
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What are the fat and water soluble vitamins absorbed in the small intestine |
Fat soluble: a,d,e,k Water: b,c |
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How does ethanol go from ingestion to being metabolized in the liver |
Metabolized by alcohol dehydrogenase in the stomach, absorbed in stomach and small intestine, metabolized in liver |
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What are the 3 major regions of the large intestine |
Cecuk, colon, rectum |
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What cells secrete mucous in the large intestine |
Goblet cells |
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What are the twists in the karge intestine called |
Haustra |
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Explain the defecation reflex |
Rectum distended, stimulating reflex from sacral spinal cord Motor impulses to descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, and Anus Relaxation of internal anal sphincter allow movement to external sphincter Voluntary relaxation of external sphincter completes defecation |
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What is the area of the kidney where blood and lymph vessels, nerves, and ureter connect to |
Hilum |
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List the 3 layers that surround the kidney |
Fibrous capsule, perineal fat capsule, renal fascia |
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What are the components of the parenchyma of the kidney |
Renal cortex, renal medulla |
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What are the components of the renal medulla |
Renal pyramids, renal papilla, renal columns, neohrons |
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What are the 3 Capillary beds of the nephron |
Glomerular, peritubular, Vasa recta |
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Function of renal nerves |
Vasoconstriction/dilation of renal arterioles |
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How does blood supply differ between juxtamedullary and cortical nephrons |
Cortical gets supply from peritubular, juxtamedullary get supply from peritubular and Vasa recta |
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Function of juxtaglomerular apparatus |
Regulate blood pressure @ glomerulus |
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List the layers that plasma must pass through to become filtrate |
Filtration membrane, glomerular endothelial cells, basement membrane, slit membrane |
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What forms the slit membrane of the glomerulus |
Pedicels of podocytes |
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What are mesangial cells of the glomerulus |
Contractile cells between afferent and efferent glomerular capillaries that regulate filtration rate |
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What does net filtration pressure of the glomerulus depend on |
Glomerular blood hydrostatic pressure, blood colloid osmotic pressure, capsular hydrostatic pressure |
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List the 3 mechanisms that regulate glomerular filtration rate |
Renal auto regulation, hormonal regulation, neural regulation |
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What are the two methods of renal autoregulation |
Myogenic mechanisms by contracting or dilating afferent arterioles in response to blood pressure Tubuloglomerular feedback from macula densa cells sensing na, cl, and h2o |
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Explain tubuloglomerular feedback |
When there is a higher filtration rate, less cl, na, and h2o are absorbed. Macula densa cells sense this and inhibit nitric oxide release from juxtaglomerular cells. Less nitric oxide causes constriction of afferent arterioles to lower filtration rate |
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How does hormonal regulation of the glomerular filtration rate occur |
Angiotensin 2 decreases filtration rate, atrial natriuretic peptide increases filtration rate |
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How does neural regulation of glomerular filtration rate occur |
As sympathetic activity increases, afferent arterioles constrict more than efferent arterioles, decreasing filtration rate |
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What epithelium types form the regions in nephron |
Pct: cuboidal with microvilli Descending loop: simple squamous Ascending loop: cuboidal Dct: cuboidal Last region of dct: intercalated and principal cells |
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What are the two reabsorption routes for material in the nephron |
Paracellular reabsorption through leaky tight junctions Transcellular reabsorption through apical and basal membranes via active or passive transport |
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What are the two types of water reabsorption in the nephron |
Obligatory reabsorption from water following solutes via osmosis through aquaporin-1 Facultative reabsorption under control of adh |
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How is blood pH controlled at the nephron |
Secretion of hydrogen ions |
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What reabsorption occurs in pct of nephron |
Na reabsoprtion via symporters and antiporters Obligatory h2o reabsorption towards peritubular capillaries |
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What secretion occurs in pct of nephron |
Urea and ammonia secreted by pct cells |
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What is permeable in thick and thin limbs of nephron loop |
Thick: has pumps for solutes, impermeable to h2o Thin: permeable to h2o, impermeable to solutes |
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What reabsorption occurs in early dct of nephron |
Apical membrane has na/cl symporters Basal membrane has na/k pumps and cl leak channels |
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What reabsorption occurs in late dct of nephron |
Principal cells with adh and aldosterone receptors increase h2o reabsorption when stimulated Intercalated cells reabsorb hco3 and secrete h+ or opposite depending Na leak channels in apical membrane |
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List the 4 hormones that affect reabsorption and secretion in tubules of nephron |
Angiotensin 2, aldosterone, adh, atrial natriuretic peptide |
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Effect of angiotensin 2 on nephron |
Increases reabsorption by decreasing filtration rate through afferent vasoconstriction and increasing activity of na/h+ antiporters in pct Stimulates aldosterone release to increase na reabsorption and k secretion by principle cells |
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Effect of adh on nephron |
Increase h2o permeability of principle cells in collecting duct by promoting insertion of aquaporin-2 |
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Effect of atrial natriuretic peptide on nephron |
Inhibit na + h2o reabsorption in pct and collecting duct Suppress adh and aldosterone secretion |
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What are the 3 evaluations of kidney function |
Urinalysis: volume, physical, chemical, microscopic characteristics Blood tests: blood-urea-nitrogen levels, plasma creatinine levels Renal plasma clearance: measures rate of removal of substance from blood plasma |
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What are the 3 layers of the ureters |
Mucosa: transitional epithelium Muscular layer: inner longitudinal, outer circular Adventitia: loose connective tissue with blood and lymph vessels that anchor ureters |
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What is the smooth triangular shape in floor of bladder |
Trigone |
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What are the 3 layers of the bladder wall |
Mucosa: transitional epith with mucosal folds Musculadis: inner longitudinal, middle circular, outer longitudinal, skeletal muscle external urethral sphincter Adventitia: areolar ct that covers regions without serosa |
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What are the 3 regions of the urethra in males |
Prostatic, membraneous, spongy |
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What is the histology of the urethra |
Transitional to nonkeratinized stratified squamous epith, lamina propria with elastic fibres and circular smooth muscle |
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What is micturition |
Urination |
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Explain the process of micturition |
Filling of bladder activates stretch receptors Impulse sent to micturition center in sacral spinal cord to trigger reflex Reflex causes relaxation of internal urethral sphincter while voluntary relaxation of external sphincter completes urination |
