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278 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are the two areas of exchange between bodily fluids |
At the plasma membrane and endothelial walls |
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Define fluid balance |
When required amounts of water and solutes are present in correct proportions in body compartments |
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How is water gained in body |
By ingestion or metabolic synthesis |
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How is water lost from the body |
Excretion as urine, evaporation from skin as sweat or from lungs, excreted from gi tract in feces |
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How is dehydration regulated |
osmoreceptors detecting increase in blood osmolarity Atrial volume receptors sensing low blood volume Baroreceptors in blood vessels detect low blood pressure Neurons in mouth detect dryness |
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How is solute and water loss regulated |
By loss in urine |
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What stimulates the renin angiotensin aldosterone pathway |
Decrease in blood volume or sodium plasma levels |
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Function of angiotensin 2 |
Increase sodium reabsorption in proximal convoluted tubules |
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Function of aldosterone |
Increase sodium reabsorption and potassium secretion in kidney |
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Function of atrial natriuretic peptide |
Decrease sodium reabsorption in pct and collecting duct |
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Name of increased sodium secretion in urine |
Natriuresis |
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Name of increased water secretion in urine |
Diuresis |
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What is hyponatremia |
Low levels of sodium |
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Where is sodium levels highest |
In extracellular fluid |
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4 general functions of electrolytes |
Carry electrical current, act as enzyme cofactor, maintain acid base balance, control osmosis |
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What happens with high sodium retention |
Water retention leading to edema |
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What causes edema |
High sodium retention from renal failure or hyperaldosteronism |
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What happens from excess sodium loss |
High water loss leading to hypovolumia |
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What causes hypovolumia from sodium imbalances |
Inadequate aldosterone secretion or excess intake of diuretics |
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Where are chloride levels highest |
In extracellular fluid |
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Functions of chloride ions |
Reg electrical balance across rbc membrane and is used in hcl formation in stomach |
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Where are potassium levels highest |
Intracellular fluid |
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Functions of potassium ions |
Help establish resting membrane potential of nerves and muscles, maintains volume of intracellular fluid, regulates pH |
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How are potassium ions regulated |
By aldosterone with sodium potassium antiporters |
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How are potassium ions regulated |
By aldosterone with sodium potassium antiporters |
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Name of when there is too kuch potassium in blood |
Blood Hyperkalemia |
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Main regulator of bicarbonate ions |
Kidneys |
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Where are highest levels of calcium ions |
Extracellular fluid |
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What regulates calcium ions levels |
Parathyroid hormone to increase, calcitonin to decrease |
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Function of phosphate ions |
Act as buffer in body fluids and urine |
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How are phosphate ion levels regulated |
By parathyroid hormone and calcitonin causing release or uptake from hydroxyapatite crystals |
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Where are magnesium ion levels highest |
Intracellular fluid |
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Function of magnesium ions |
Activate some enzymes in carbohydrate and protein metabolism, involved in neuromuscular jxn activity |
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What regulates magnesium ion levels |
Kidneys |
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How do kidneys aid in acid base balance |
Excrete H+ via na/h antiporters, and synthesize and reabsorb hco3- |
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What is normal pH in the body |
7.35-7.45 |
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What is the effect of respiratory acidosis or alkalosis |
Disorders of co2 levels in blood |
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Effect of metabolic acidosis and alkalosis |
Disorders of hco3- levels |
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How does compensation occur for metabolic acidosis or alkalosis |
Acidosis: hyperventilation Alkalosis: hypoventilation |
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How does metabolic compensation for respiratory alkalosis or acidosis occur |
Changing hco3- secretion to compensate |
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Causes of respiratory acidosis |
Emphysema, pulmonary edema, damage to brainstem and respiratory centers, artery obstruction |
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How does renal compensation for respiratory acidosis occur |
By increasing h+ secretion and hco3- reabsorption |
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Causes of respiratory alkalosis |
Hyperventilation from high altitude, pulmonary disease, anxiety |
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Causes of metabolic acidosis |
Excess hco3- loss from diarrhea or kidney disfunction, or kidneys fail to excrete h+ |
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How does metabolic alkalosis occur |
Vomiting, gastric sectioning, alkaline drugs |
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Functions of gonads |
Produce gametes and secrete hormones |
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Function of repro ducts |
Store and transport gametes |
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Function of repro accessory glands |
Produce substances that support gametes |
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Function of repro structures |
assist delivery and joining of gametes, site for embryo and fetus growth |
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What is the external bilateral separation of the scrotum |
Raphne |
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Name the internal separating structure of the scrotum |
Scroll septum |
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Name the muscle that moves testes close to body |
Cremaster |
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Name the muscle that tightens the scrotum to reduce surface area |
Dartos |
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Which of the scrotum muscles is smooth and skeletal |
Smooth: dartos Skeletal: cremaster |
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What is the overall function of the scrotum |
Having the testes at 2-3 degrees lower than body temp to allow for sperm survival and production |
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Name the structure that develops from the peritoneum and partly covers testes |
Tunica vaginalis |
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Structure name of fibrous capsule surrounding testes |
Tunica albuginea |
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What is a lobule in the testes |
A group of 1-3 seminiferous tubules for spermatogenesis |
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What are the two cell types in seminiferous tubules |
Spermatogonia, nurse cells |
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What cells do spermatogonia develop from |
Primordial stem cells |
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Functions of nurse cells in testes |
Form blood-testis barrier with tight junctions to prevent and immune response on sperm Nourish and release sperm into lumen Secrete inhibin |
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What is the first haploid stage of spermatogenesis |
Secondary spermatocyte |
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What are the 3 stages in spermatogenesis following spermatogonia cells |
Primary spermatocyte -> secondary spermatocyte -> spermatid |
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Name the process of sperm maturation |
Spermiogenesis |
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What occurs in spermiogenesis |
Spermatid mature into sperm by elongation, developing an acrosome, flagellum, and multiplying mitochondria |
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What are the two structures of the head of a sperm |
Nucleus, acrosome |
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Name the 4 parts of the tail of a sperm |
Neck, middle piece, principle piece, end piece |
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What hormone stimulates secretion of testosterone from interstitial Endocrine cells |
Luteinizing hormone |
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Functions of fsh in spermatogenesis |
Acts on nurse cells to promote secretion of androgen binding protein, indirectly stims spermatogenesis |
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What are the two main androgens |
Testosterone and dihydrotestosterone |
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Fxns of androgens before birth |
Stim development of male repro system ducts and descent of testes |
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Fxns of androgens after birth |
Control growth, development and fxn of male sec organs and 2ndary sex traits Reg male sex behavior and drive Stim anabolic rxns |
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How is testosterone production controlled |
Negative feedback of high testosterone from receptors in hypothalamus to decrease gnrh secretion |
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How is fluid pushed through repro ducts in males |
Fluid secreted by nurse cells creates pressure to push fluid |
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What is the path of flow in male repro ducts following seminiferous tubules |
Straight tubules -> rete of testes -> efferent ductules-> duct of epididymus -> ductus deferens |
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Functions of epididymus |
Sperm storage and maturation, propels sperm into vas deferens |
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Function of vas deferens |
Stores and propels sperm via peristalsis |
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What is a spermatic cord |
Supporting structure ascending from the scrotum |
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What does one spermatic cord consist of |
A vas deferens, testicular artery and veins, autonomic nerves, lymphatic vessels, cremaster muscle |
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Name the structure that arises from the union of the seminal gland duct and ampulla of vas deferens |
Ejactulatory duct |
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Function of ejaculatory duct |
Eject sperm and secretions from seminal glands into urethra before ejaculation |
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Name the 3 parts of the urethra |
Prostatic, membranous, spongy |
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Where does the urethra end |
At the external erethral orifice |
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Name the 3 male accessory repro glands |
Prostate, bulbourethral, seminal vesicle |
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Function of seminal vesicle |
Secrete alkaline fluid to neutralize acid in urethral and female repro tract |
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What composes seminal fluid from seminal vesicle |
Alkaline fluid with prostaglandin, fructose, and clotting factors |
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What composes prostatoc fluid |
Citric acid, proteolytic enzymes, seminal plasmin, acid phosphatase |
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Fxn of citric acid in prostatic fluid |
Used by sperm for atp production |
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Function of bulbourethral gland |
Secrete alkaline fluid into urethra and secrete mucous as lubricant |
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Name the 3 general structures of the penis |
Root, body, glans penis |
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What are the 3 structures in the body of the penis |
2 corpora cavernosa, 1 corpus spongiosum |
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How does and erection occur |
Parasympathetic reflex to sex stim causes dilation of arterioles supplying penis with nitric oxide Increased blood flow fills sinuses, compressing veins and trapping blood |
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How is urination prevented with an erection |
Sphincter at base of bladder closes |
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What occurs post ejaculation |
Arterioles supplying erectile tissues constrict while smooth muscle contracts to shrink blood sinuses |
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What structure holds ovaries in place? |
Ovarian ligaments |
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What structures form ovarian follicles |
Oocytes, follicular cells, granulosa cells |
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What is the histology of ovarian follicles following primordial follicles |
Primary, secondary, tertiary, corpus luteum, corpus albicans |
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Name the glycoprotein layer between oocyte and granulosa cells |
Zona pellucida |
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What are the two main layers surrounding the oocyte |
Zona pellucida and theca folliculi |
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Name the two theca folliculi layers |
Theca interna and theca externa |
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What composes the theca interna and fxn |
Secretory cells that secrete androgens |
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What composes the theca externa |
Stromal cells |
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What is the antrum of a follicle |
A cavity of follicular fluid from granulosa cells |
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What is the Corona radiata |
Inner layer of granulosa cells directly attached to zona pellucida |
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What cells become oogonia? |
Germ cells from umbilical vesicle |
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How are primary oocytes developed from oogonia |
Oogonia divide by mitosis into germ cells - some develop into primary follicles and stop in prophase 1, but most die off via atresia |
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How is meiosis completed in oocytes after being primary follicles being stopped in prophase 1 |
Monthly hormones stim for meiosis to resume just before ovulation where the tertiary oocyte will pause in metaphase 2 until fertilization where it completes |
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What structure sweeps the ovum into fallopian tubes |
Fimbriae |
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Describe the epithelium of fallopian tubes |
Ciliated simple columnar to move ovum, peg cells with microvilli that secrete fluid to nourish the ovum |
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How do fallopian tubes move the ovum |
Peristalsis from smooth muscle, beating of Cilia in epithelium |
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Functions of the uterus |
Sperm transport, mestruation, implantation of fertilized ovum, development of fetus, labour |
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Name the parts of the uterus |
Funds, cervix, body, interior uterine cavity, cervical canal |
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What secretes cervical mucous in the uterus |
Secretory cells in the mucosa |
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What are the 3 main layers of the uterus |
Endometrium, myometrium, perimetrium |
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What are the 3 layers of the uterine endometrium |
Compact layer, functional layer, basal layer |
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What composes the uterine perimetrium |
Simple squamous epithelium and areolar connective tissue |
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Describe the vagina |
Fibromuscular canal lined with mucosa that extends from exterior to uterine cervix |
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Functions of the vagina |
Passage for menstrual flow, receive sperm, form lower birth canal |
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What is the vulva |
Female external genitals |
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What is the vulva composed of? |
External urethral orifice, mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, vaginal orifice, hymen |
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Describe mammary glands |
Modified sudoriferous glands with alveoli that secrete milk |
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Name the duct for mammary glands |
Lactiferous duct |
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Why is breastfeeding important for the first few months after birth |
Maternal milk contains antibodies and immune cells that protect the infant |
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What is the positive feedback loops with lactation |
Suckling stims stretch receptors which sends an impulse to the hypothalamus to stop release of prolactin inhibiting hormone and promote secretion of prolactin releasing hormone |
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What is the milk ejection reflex |
Oxytocin induces contractions in myoepithelium surrounding alveoli, oxytocin release triggered by stim of nipple touch receptors, hearing a baby's cry, or touching of genitals |
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What does fsh do in females |
Stim follicular development and estrogen release |
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Fxn of estrogen in females |
Promote development of 2ndary sex traits, increase protein anabolism, stim proliferation phase of uterine cycle, inhibit release of gnrh, fsh, and lh |
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Progesterone fxn females |
Work with estrogens to prep endometrium and mammary glands, inhibit gnrh and lh secretion when in high levels |
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Relaxin fxns females |
Small amounts monthly to relax uterus for easier implantation of ovum, relaxes uterine cervix and pubic symphysis during pregnancy |
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What what are the stages of the female repro cycle in order and timeframe |
Menstruation days 1-5, preovulatory 6-13, ovulation 14, post ovulatory phase 15-28 |
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What occurs in the ovary during the menstruation phase |
Primordial follicles develop into primary and secondary follicles under fsh influence |
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Uterus in menstruation phase |
Functional and compact layers shed due to low estrogen and progesterone |
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How does low estrogen and progesterone cause shedding of endometrial layers in menstruation |
Low estrogen and progesterone levels cause release of prostaglandin which cause vasoconstriction of arterioles cause hypoxia and cell death |
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Ovaries in preovulatory phase |
In follicular phase: primary follicles develop into secondary follicles, the dominant follicle develops into a tertiary follicle. Fsh secretion slows and lh secretion triggered |
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Uterus in preovulatory phase |
In proliferative phase: increased estrogen levels stim repair and thickening of functional and compact layers |
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What occurs during the ovulation phase |
High estrogen levels cause positive feedback on lh and gnrh to induce ovulation, corpus luteum forms and lh stims corpus luteum to release progesterone, estrogens, relaxin, and inhibin |
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What hormones does the corpus luteum release just after ovulation |
Estrogens, progesterone, relaxin, inhibin |
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What hormones does the corpus luteum release just after ovulation |
Estrogens, progesterone, relaxin, inhibin |
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Ovaries in post ovulatory phase |
In luteal phase: corpus luteum secretes estrogens and progesterone, corpus luteum forms after 2 weeks if no fertilization |
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Uterus in post ovulatory phase |
In secretory phase: hormones from corpus luteum promote endometrium thickening, endometrial glands secrete glycogen |
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How does hormone birth control work |
Combo of estrogen and progesterone administered to cause negative feedback for gnrh, fsh, and lh to prevent follicular development and ovulation |
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What is the risk of hormonal birth control |
Higher risk of blood clots and especially in smokers |
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What is tubal ligation |
Clamped, tied, cut, or cauterized fallopian tubes |
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What is the embryonic period of prenatal development |
From fertilization to embryo - 8 weeks |
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What is the timeframe of the fetal development period of prenatal development |
Week 9-> birth |
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When does the placenta begin to fxn |
End of 3rd month |
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What is the neonatal period |
First 28 days after birth |
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Where and when does fertilization occur |
In fallopian tube 12-24 hours after ovulation |
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Name the two layers sperm must penetrate for fertilization |
Corona radiata, zona pellucida |
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What is the corona radiata |
Outer layer of granulosa cells around oocyte |
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What is the zona pellucida |
Glycoprotein layer underneath Corona radiata |
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What is the sperm receptor in the zona pellucida |
Zp3 |
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What occurs when sperm and oocyte fuse |
Fast block by depolarizing cell membrane, slow block by hardening zona pellucida, and completion of meiosis 2 |
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Define syngamy |
Fusion of male and female pronuclei to form a single diploid cell |
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Name the 3 types of twins |
Fraternal, identical, conjoined |
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How are identical twins produced vs conjoined twins |
Identical have the zygote split within 8 days of fertilization while conjoined occur after 8 days |
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Name the stages and time-frames of the embryonic period in week 1 |
Cleavage of zygote: 1-4 days Blastocyst formation: day 5 Implantation: day 6 |
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Name the cells made from cleavages of zygote |
Blastomeres |
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How is a blastocyst formed |
Uterine milk from endometrial glands enter the morula to form the blastocyst cavity |
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What is the function of uterine milk for the morula |
Nourishment |
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What are the two cell populations of the blastocyst |
Inner embryoblast, outer trophoblast |
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What does the embryoblast develop into |
Embryo |
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What does the trophoblast develop into |
Outer chorionic sac |
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Where does the embryoblast generally implant |
Fundus or uterine body |
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How does the blastocyst implant itself |
Blastocyst attaches with Embryoblast cells facing the endometrium, enzymes are secreted to digest the zona pellucida and burrow into the endometrium |
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What hormone is secreted in implantation of the first week of embryonic period |
Human chorionic gonadotropin |
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Name the layers that surrounds the blastocyst once burrowed |
Decidua |
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Name the layers of the decidua of endometrium |
Basal, capsular, parietal |
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What is the function of the basal decidua |
Nourish embryo and form part of maternal placenta |
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Function of capsular decidua |
Cover embryo |
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What occurs to the trophoblast in week two of embryonic period |
Trophoblast divides into 2 layers: outer synctiotrophoblast, inner cytotrophoblast. Trophoblast secretes hcg |
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Name the two layers the trophoblast divides into in week 2 of embryonic period |
Outer synctiotrophoblast, inner cytotrophoblast |
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Fxn of synctiotrophoblast |
Secrete enzymes to allow the blastocyst to burrow deeper |
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What happens to the embryoblast in week 2 of embryonic period |
Divides into two layers to form bilaminar embryonic disc |
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Name the two layers of the bilaminar embryonic disc |
Hypoblast and epiblast |
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What does the hypoblast of the bilaminar embryonic disc develop into |
Lining of gi and resp tracts |
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What does the epiblast of the bilaminar embryonic disc develop into |
Epidermis and nervous system |
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What is the amniotic cavity in week 2 of embryonic period |
Cavity within the epiblast that borders amnion and epiblast |
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What is the amnion |
Simple squamous epith that develops from the epiblast and creates amniotic fluid |
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Functions of amniotic fluid |
Shock absorption, temperatur regulation, prevent adhesion of fetal skin with surroundings |
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When does the yolk sac develop |
When the amniotic cavity forms in week 2 |
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What forms the yolk sac |
Hypoblast |
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Yolk sac functions |
Supply nutrients to embryo for weeks 2 and 3, blood cell source in weeks 3-6, shock absorber, prevents drying of embryo |
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What does the yolk sac develop into |
Part of the gut in the 4th week, and has cells that develop into the gonads |
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When do sinusoids develop in embryonic period |
Once the blastocyst is enveloped by endometrium |
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What forms the vascular circles of the blastocyst |
Trophoblastic lacunae |
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How are maternal sinusoids formed for the blastocyst |
With dilation of endometrial capillaries |
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What forms the chorion |
Extraembryonic mesoderm and trophoblast |
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What does the chorion develop into |
The fetal side of placenta |
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How is the chorionic cavity formed |
Fusing of large cavities in mesoderm forms the extraembryonic coelom which then forms the chorionic cavity |
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Chorion fxns |
Secrete hcg, Suppress maternal immune response to fetus |
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How does the chorion suppress the maternal immune response to the fetus |
Secreting a protein that blocks maternal antibody production, helps produced t lymphocytes that suppress uterine immune responses |
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How is the umbilical cord formed |
Bilaminar embryonic disc connects to the teophoblast via the connecting stalk, which then develops into the umbilical cord |
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What are the 3 layers of the trilaminar embryonic disc |
Endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm |
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How is the primitive streak formed in gastrulation |
From rearrangement of the epiblast |
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How does the endoderm and ectoderm differ from the mesoderm in histology |
Endo and ecto are tightly packed epith cells while meso is loosely organized connective tissue |
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What does the endoderm develop into |
Lining of gi, urinary, respiratory, and repro tracts |
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What does the mesoderm develop into |
Muscle, bone, connective tissue, cardiovascular system, peritoneum |
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When does gastrulation occur |
Week 3 |
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Explain the process of gastrulation |
Mesodermal cells from primitive node migrate towards head and form notochord process which develops into the notochord. Notochord causes induction in mesoderm to become vertebral bodies |
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What is the oropharyngeal and cloacal membranes |
The small depressions where ecto and endoderms meet at head and tail |
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What is the allantois |
Vascularized outpoutch from yolk sac |
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How is someone born with an imperforate anus |
Persistence of the clock membrane |
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How does neuralation occur |
Induction from notochord on ectodermal cells to form neural plate. Neural plate develops neural folds around the neural groove which then fuse to form the neural tube |
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What does the neural tube develop into |
Spinal cord and brain |
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What do neural crest cells develop into |
All sensory neurons |
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How does spina bifida occur |
Improper formation of neural tube - meninges and spinal cord can protrude from spinal column |
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What is anaencephaly |
Cranial bones fail to surround brain tissue |
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How do somites develop |
Mesoderm near the notochord and neural tube form paired longitudinal columns that split into somites |
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What are the 3 derivatives of somites |
Myotomes, dermatomes, sclerotomes |
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Derivatives of myotomes |
Skel. Musc. Of neck, trunk and limbs |
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Derivatives of dermatomes |
Dermis and connective tissue |
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Derivatives of sclerotomes |
Vertebrae and ribs |
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What does the intraembryonic coelom split into |
Splanchnopleuric mesenchyme, somatopleuric mesenchyme |
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Derivatives of the splanchnopleuric mesenchyme |
Heart, visceral pleura |
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Derivatives of somatopleuric mesenchyme |
Bones, ligaments, blood vessels, peritoneum |
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What is angiogenesis |
Formation of embryonic blood vessels |
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How does angiogenesis occur |
Mesodermal cells in yolk sac differentiate into angioplasty that form blood islands. Blood Islands fuse, and spaces within blood Islands become the lumen of vessels. Blood Islands grow and fuse into network |
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When does angiogenesis occur |
When the yolk sac can no longer support the embryo |
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Where do blood cells and plasma develop in early mid and late embryonic period |
Early: yolk sac, chorion, allantois Mid: liver Late: spleen, red bone marrow, thymus |
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What does the heart develop from |
Splanchnopleuric mesenchyme |
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How does the heart develop |
Induction from endoderm of mesoderm cells to form primordial tubes which fuse to form a primitive heart tube |
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When does the primitive heart tube begin to beat |
Week 3 |
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What forms the placenta |
Chorionic villi and basal layer of endometrium |
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What does the chorionic villi develop from |
From the chorion that projects into the uterine wall. Fetal blood capillaries within villi project into intervillous spaces for nutrient and waste exchange |
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Fxns of placenta |
Nutrient and waste exchange, hormone production to sustain pregnancy, act as microbial and drug barrier |
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Name blood vessels of the umbilical cord and specify deoxy or oxy |
2 umbilical arteries deoxy, 1 umbilical vein oxy |
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Name the scar from the umbilical cord |
Umbilicus |
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What type of stem cell is present in the umbilical cord |
Pluripotent stem cells |
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Totipotent stem cell |
Can form any cell |
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Pluripotent stem cell |
Tissue specific and can form many cell types |
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Multipotent stem cell |
Differentiate into closely related cells (eg. Hematopoeitic) |
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Oligopotent cells |
Dev into a few closely related cell types (eg. Myeloid cells) |
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Unipotent stem cells |
Produce only one cell type (eg. Spermatogonia) |
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What occurs in weeks 4-9 embryonic period |
Organogenesis and organ development |
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What is the result of embryonic folding |
An embryo with distinct superior/inferior, l/r, and anterior/posterior that has a primitive gut |
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Name the four folds resulting from embryonic folding |
Head, tail, and lateral folds |
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How does organogenesis occur |
Pharyngeal arches and pouches form specific head and neck structures, upper and lower limb buds develop from mesoderm covered with ectoderm, heart prominence forms on ventral surface |
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What are the otic and lens placodes and what do they form |
Pharyngeal pouches: otic ->inner ear, lens -> eye lens |
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Dev of heart in weeks 5-8 |
Becomes 4 chambered and blood cells form in liver |
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Dev of limbs in weeks 5-8 |
Form and lengthen, digits separate |
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When is the rmbryo considered a fetus |
Once it has clear human features - week 8 |
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When do nipples, hair follicles, and handprints form |
In the fetal period |
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What human features are refined in fetal period |
Limbs and digits lengthen, fingernails develop, fine hairs cover body, eyes open at week 27 |
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What occurs in the fetus after 28 weeks |
Changes in circulatory and respiratory systems in prep for breathing , body temp self maintains, bones harden, muscles thicken |
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What are 3 main causes of abnormal development |
Environmental, genetic, unknown |
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Name the 4 prenatal tests |
Fetal ultrasonography, maternal blood screening, amniocentesis, chorionic villi sampling |
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What is required for a fetal ultrasound |
A full bladder as a marker |
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How many fetal ultrasounds are taken |
2- first and second trimesters |
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What does maternal blood screening show for a prenatal test |
Abnormal levels of alpha-fetoprotein from fetus, and placental hormones |
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How is amniocentesis performed |
Needle through abdomen wall to collect amniotic fluid |
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What does amniocentesis test for |
Genetic abnormalities, biochemistry defects (alpha fetoprotein and acetylcholinesterase), gender |
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How is chorionic villi sampling performed |
Needle through ab wall or transvaginal suction through cervix to collect chorionic villi |
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When can chorionic villi sampling be performed vs amniocentesis |
Amniocentesis at 13-14 weeks while villi sampling at 8 weeks |
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When is hcg detected in blood |
8 days post fertilization |
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When are estrogens and progesterone produced by the placenta instead of corpus luteum |
End of 4th month |
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What hormone establishes timing for birth and can lead to premature birth |
Corticotropin releasing hormone |
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What are the main maternal changes in pregnancy |
Uterus enlargement, weight gain, cardiovascular changes, respiratory changes, urinary changes, gi tract changes |
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How does uterus enlargement affect the gi tract |
Causes heartburn and constipation |
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Affect of uterus growth on inferior vena cava |
Varicose veins and edema in legs |
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Effect of uterus growth on aorta and renal artery |
Less blood flow, renal hypertension |
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Cardiovascular system changes in pregnancy |
Higher heart rate and cardiac output |
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Respiratory sys changes in pregnancy |
Increased tidal volume, ventilation rate, and o2 consumption |
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Uterus growth affects on urinary sys |
Increased renal plasma flow, glomerular filtration rate, and overall urination |
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Uterus growth effects on gi tract |
Increased appetite, decreased motility, delayed emptying |
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What hormones start and maintain labour |
Estrogens, prostaglandin, oxytocin, relaxin |
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How does increased estrogen levels overcome progesterone levels |
Placental corticotropin releasing hormone, fetal anterior ptuitary secretes adrenocorticotrophic hormone, fetal adrenal glands secrete dream which gets converted to estrogen |
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What does estrogen do in labour |
Upregulate oxytocin receptors on uterine muscle |
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What is the oxytocin positive feedback loop in labour |
Uterine contraction forces fetal head into cervix activating stretch receptors which stim oxytocin release |
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Differentiate true and false labour |
False: irregular ab pain intervals that don't intensifyTrue: regular painful contractions that increase in frequency with back pain, and cervix dilation. Also has vaginal discharge of mucous and blood False: irregular ab pain intervals that don't intensifyTrue: regular painful contractions that increase in frequency with back pain, and cervix dilation. Also has vaginal discharge of mucous and blood False: irregular ab pain intervals that don't intensifyTrue: regular painful contractions that increase in frequency with back pain, and cervix dilation. Also has vaginal discharge of mucous and blood |
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What are the 3 stages of true labour |
Dilation, expulsion, placental |
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How is hemmorhage prevented in placental stage of labour |
Contractions constrict bv to prevent hemmorhage |
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What occurs in the maternal post natal period |
Maternal anatomy returns to normal - uterus shrinks, discharge from former placental site, cervix firms |
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What post natal adjustments occur in fetus |
Respiratory, cardiovascular |
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What respiratory adjustments occur in the fetus |
Once umbilical cord is cut, co2 lvls rise stimming respiratory center in medulla to start breathing |
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What cardiovascular adjustments occur post natal in fetus |
Foramen ovale closes to direct deoxy blood to lungs once breathing, ductus arteriosus becomes ligamentum arteriosum, ductus venosus allows deoxy blood to flow into hepatic portal vein |
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What is patent foramen ovale |
When the foramen ovale doesn't fuse shut |
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What is aneuploidy |
Abnormal number of chromosomes from nodivision |
