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460 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Sir Francis Galton |
Began the systematic attempt to measure intelligence. Believed that people learned from the world through their senses |
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Alfred Binet |
Argued that intelligence should be indicated by more complex thinking processes such as memory, attention, and comprehension. *Created textbook definition of intelligence |
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Intelligence |
The ability to think, understand, reason, and adapt to or overcome obstables |
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Theodore Simon (with Alfred Binet)... |
helped the French government develop tests for children to measure intelligence
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Lewis Terman |
adapted Binet and Simon's test for American children and established average scores for each age called - Stanford-Binet intelligence scale |
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Stanford-Binet intelligence scale |
Americanized scale of intelligence of Binet/Simon's test on French children |
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Stanford-Binet test is... |
test intended to measure innate levels of intelligence |
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Anthropometrics |
methods of measuring physical and mental variation in humans |
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Mental age |
average intellectual ability score for children of a specific age |
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IQ (intelligence Quotient) |
calculated by taking a person's mental age, dividing by his chronological age, then multiplying by 100 |
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Deviation IQ |
used to measure IQ of adults, calculated by comparing a person's test score to the average score for the age |
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Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) |
intelligence test used for adolescence and adults Still relevant today (currently in its 4th edition) |
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Raven's Progressive Matrices |
intelligence test that is based on pictures, not words thus making it relatively unaffected by language or cultural background |
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Social-Darwinism emerged into... |
Eugenics |
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Eugenics |
Movement of "good genes" |
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Stereotype Threat |
occurs when negative stereotypes about a group cause group members to underperform on ability tests |
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Entity theory |
belief that intelligence is a fixed characteristic and relatively difficult (or impossible) to change |
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Incremental theory |
belief that intelligence can be shaped by experiences, practice, and effort |
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Savant |
individual with low mental capacity in most domains but extraordinary abilities in other specific areas such as music, mathematics, or art |
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Factor Analysis |
statistical technique that examines correlations between variables to find clusters of related variables, or "factors" |
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General intelligence factor (g) |
believed to have represented a person's "mental energy" thus reflecting an individual's strength of their brain |
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(s) specific-level, skill-based intelligence |
skill or ability level for a specific task |
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Louis Thornstone |
Found seven different clusters of primary mental abilities |
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The seven clusters of mental ability includes |
fluency, verbal comprehension, numeric abilities, spatial visualization, memory, perceptual speed, and reasoning |
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Fluid intelligence (Gf) |
intelligence used in learning new information and solving problems not based on knowledge the person already posses. Declines with age |
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What kind of intelligence declines with age? |
Fluid intelligence |
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Crystallized intelligence (Gc) |
intelligence that draws upon past learning and experience Increases with age |
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What kind of intelligence increases with age? |
Crystal intelligence |
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Robert Sternberg thought of which theory? |
Triarchic theory of intelligence: Analytical, practical, and creative |
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What are the three types of Triarchic theory of intelligence |
Analytical, practical, and creative intelligence |
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Analytical intelligence |
Ability to reason logically through a problem and to find a solution. What most intelligence tests measure "book smarts" |
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Practical intelligence |
Ability to find solution to real-world problems that are encountered in daily life, especially those that involve other people "street smarts" |
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Creative intelligence |
ability to create new ideas and generate novel solutions to problems |
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Howard Gardner |
proposed the theory of "multiple intelligence", due to his interest in savants and those who skilled with brain damage. If (g) (multiple intelligence) was a thing, it would be more consistent |
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Multiple intelligence |
Model which claims that are there are 8 (now possible 9) different forms of intelligence, each independent from each other |
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What are the 8 intelligences that Gardner proposes (9th?) |
Verbal/linguistic, Logical/mathematical, Visuospatial, Bodily/Kinesthetic, Musical Rhythmical, Interpersonal, Self/Intrapersonal, Naturalistic and maybe Existential intelligence |
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Verbal/Linguisitc Intelligence |
ability to read, write, and speak effectively |
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Logical/Mathematical intelligence |
ability to think with numbers and use abstract thoughts ability to use logic or mathematical operations to solve problems |
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Visuospatial Intelligence |
ability to create mental pictures, manipulate them in the imagination, and use them to solve problems |
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Bodily/Kinesthetic Intelligence |
ability to control body movements, to balance, and to sense how one's body is situated |
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Musical/Rhythmical intelligence |
ability to produce and comprehend tonal and rhythmic patterns |
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Interpersonal intelligence |
ability to detect another person's emotional state, motives, and thoughts |
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Self/Intrapersonal Intelligence |
self awareness, ability to accurately judge one's own abilities and identify one's own emotions and motives |
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Naturalistic intelligence |
ability to recognize and identify processes in the natural world, like animals |
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Existential intelligence |
tendency and ability to ask questions about purpose in life and the meaning of human existance |
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Stereotype threat |
when people become aware of stereotypes about their social group and become fearful of being reduced to that stereotype Usually resulting in underperformance and anxiety skill |
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Heritability |
describes how much of the differences between people in a sample can be accounted for by differences in their genes Depends on the sample of people being studied |
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Behavioural genomics |
technique that examines how specific genes interact with the environment to influence behaviours, including those related to intelligence |
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Gene knockout (KO) studies |
involves removing a specific gene and comparing the characteristics with and without that gene |
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Transgenic animal |
animals that receives "gene transplant" |
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What are the environmental influences on intelligence? |
Birth order, Socioeconomic status (SES), Nutrition, Stress, Education, Flynn Effect |
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Video deficit |
young children do not learn very much from information presented on screens |
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Behavioural influences on Intelligence |
Basic training programs (N-back) Nootropic substances Meditation |
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Nootropic substances |
substances that are believed to beneficially affect intelligence |
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Developmental Psychology |
study of human physical, cognitive, social, and behavioural characteristics across lifespan |
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Cross-sectional design |
measure and compare samples of people at different ages at a given point in time Suffers from cohort effects |
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Cohort effects |
differences between people from being born in different time periods |
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Longitudinal design |
follows the development of the same set of individuals through time |
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Sensitive period |
window of time during which exposure to a specific type of environmental stimulation is needed for normal development of a specific ability |
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Risks and benefits of longitudinal study design? |
Risk of people dropping out/moving away and costly and long time but, strong results as we're following the same individuals |
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Zygote |
initial cell formed form the nuclei of egg and sperm fuse |
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Germinal stage |
first phase of prenatal development conception to 2 weeks |
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Embryonic stage |
weeks 2 - week 8 Embryo begins developing major physical structures such as heart and nervous system and beginning of arms, legs, hands, and feet |
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Fetal stage |
week 8 - birth skeletal, organ, nervous systems become more developed and specialized |
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What are the 3 developmental stages after the Zygote is formed |
Germinal Embryonic Fetal |
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Myelination |
during final months of pregnancy, fatty tissue called myelin builds up around developing nerve-cells |
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Myelin |
insulates nerve cells, enabling them to conduct messages more rapidly and efficiently |
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Teratogens |
substances, such as drugs or environmental toxins, which impair the process development |
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Fetal alcohol syndrome |
abnormalities in mental functioning, growth, and facial development in the offspring of women who use alcohol during pregnancy |
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Reflexes |
involuntary muscular reactions to specific types of stimulation |
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The Visual Cliff |
experiment which was to see if children would be reluctant to crawl over a deep platform under a glass, and understanding depth and danger |
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Synaptogenesis |
forming of new synaptic connections |
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Synaptic pruning |
loss of weak nerve cell connections |
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Cognitive development |
study of changes in memory, thought and reasoning processes that occur throughout the lifespan |
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Assimilation |
conservative process, whereby people fit new information into the belief systems they already possess |
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Accomodation |
creative process whereby people modify their belief structures based on experience |
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What are Piaget's 4 stages of Cognitive development? |
Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete operational Formal operational |
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Sensorimotor stage |
birth to 2 years infants explore the world based on immediate sensory and motor (seeing, feeling, and then grabbing, mouthing) |
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Preoperational stage |
year 2 to year 7 devoted to language development, using symbols, pretend play, and mastering concept of conservation |
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Concrete operational stage |
ages 7-11 children develop skills in logical thinking and manipulating numbers |
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Formal operational stage |
age 11-adulthood development of advanced cognitive processes such as abstract reasoning and hypothetical thinking |
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Object permanence |
ability to understand that objects exist when they cannot be directly perceived |
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Conservation |
knowledge that the quantity or amount of an object is not the same as the physical arrangement and appearance of that object |
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Core knowledge hypothesis |
proposes that infants have inborn abilities for understanding some key aspects of their environment |
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Habituation |
decrease in responding with repeated exposure to an event |
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Dishabituation |
increase in responsiveness with the presentation of a new stimulus |
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Zone of proximal development |
development is ideal when children attempt skills and activities that are just beyond what they can do alone, but have guidance from adults who are attentive to their progress |
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Scaffolding |
highly attentive approach to teaching in which the teacher matches guidance to the learner's needs |
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Attachment |
the enduring emotional bond formed between individuals |
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Strange situation |
way of measuring infant attachment by observing how infants behave when exposed to different experiences that involve anxiety |
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Mary Ainsworth Strange situation results |
Secure attachment Insecure attachment (anxious/resistance and avoidant) Disorganized |
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Secure attachment |
Infant avoids stranger and explores the room, seeks comfort from caregiver |
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Insecure attachment has 2 types: |
Anxious/Resistant and Avoidant |
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Anxious/Resistant |
caregiver is a base of security, infant is clingy to the caregiver and is upset when they leave. Fearful of stranger. Seeks comfort of stranger but also pushes stranger away |
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Avoidant |
child behave as though they don't need the caregiver, unaffected by stranger or when the caregiver leaves and returns |
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Disorganized |
views caregiver as fear and comfort, often paralysed with indecision |
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Self-awareness |
ability to recognize one's individuality |
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Egocentric |
only considers their own perspective
Young children are considered egocentric |
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Theory of mind |
ability to recognize the thoughts, beliefs, and expectations of other, and to understand that these can be different from one's own |
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Attachment behavioural system |
which is focused on meeting our own needs for security |
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Care-giving behavioural system |
focused on meeting the needs of others |
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Introjection |
the internalization of the conditional regard of significant others |
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Inductive discipline |
involves explaining the consequences of a child's actions on other people activating empathy for others' feelings |
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Primary sex traits |
changes in the body that are part of reproduction (sperm production/ovulation) |
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Secondary sex traits |
changes in the body that are not part of reproduction (e.g. larger breast size) |
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Menarche |
the onset of menstruation, which usually occurs around the age of 12 |
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Spermarche |
first ejaculation of sperm, usually occurs around the age of 14 |
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Delay gratification |
putting off immediate temptations in order to focus on longer-term goals |
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Social institutionist model of morality |
moral judgements are guided by intuitive, emotional reactions |
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What are Kohlberg's stages of Moral reasoning |
Preconventional morality Conventional morality Post conventional morality |
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Preconventional morality |
characterized by self-interest in seeking reward or avoiding punishment |
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Conventional morality |
regards social conventions and rules as guides for appropriate moral behaviour |
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Post conventional morality |
Considers rules and laws as relative, determined by more abstract principles of justice and rights |
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Identity |
clear sense of what kind of person you are, what types of people you belong with, and what role you should play in society |
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Menopause |
termination of the menstrual cycle and reproductive ability |
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Neurodegenerative conditions |
characterized by loss of nerve cells and nervous system functioning |
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Dementia |
refers to mild to severe disruption of mental functioning, memory loss, disorientation, poor judgement, and decision making |
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Alzheimer's disease |
degenerative and terminal condition resulting in severe damage of the entire brain |
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What are Erikson's 8 stages of Psychosocial development |
Infancy: Trust vs. Mistrust Toddlehood: Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt Preschool/Early childhood: Initiative vs. guilt Childhood: Industry vs. inferiority Adolescence: Identity vs. isolation Adulthood: Generativity vs. stagnation Aging: Ego-integrity vs. despair |
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Infancy: Trust vs. mistrust |
developing a sense of trust and security towards the caregiver |
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Toddlehood: Autonomy vs. shame and doubt |
seeking independence and gaining self-sufficiency |
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Preschool/early Childhood: Initiative vs. guilt |
active exploration of the environment and taking personal iniative |
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Childhood: Industry vs. inferiority |
striving to master tasks and challenges. Pursue interests. |
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Adolescence: Identity vs. role confusion |
achieving a sense of self and future direction |
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Young adulthood: intimacy vs. isolation |
Developing the ability to initiate and maintain intimate relationships |
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Adulthood: Generativity vs. stagnation |
focus of satisfying personal and family needs, as well as contributing to society |
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Aging: Ego integrity vs. despair |
coping with the prospects of death while looking back on life with a sense of contentment and integrity for accomplishments |
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Generativity |
being engaged, in meaningful and productive work, as well as making contributions to future generations |
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Motivation |
concerns that physiological and psychological processes underlying the initiation of behaviours that direct organisms toward specific goals |
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Drive |
Biological trigger that tells us we may be deprived of something that causes us to seek out what we need, such as food or water |
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Homeostasis |
body's physiological processes that allow it to maintain consistent internal states in response to the outer environment |
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Allostasis |
motivation is not only influenced by current needs, but also by the anticipation of future needs |
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Glucose |
sugar that serves as a primary energy source for the brain and the rest of the body |
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Satiation |
point in meal when we are no longer motivated to eat |
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Unit bias |
tendency to assume that the unit of sale or portioning is an appropriate amount to consume |
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Social facilitation |
is eating more (to fit in, e.g. having seconds to show respect) |
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Impression management |
is eating less (not wanting to look fat)
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Modelling (eating and social context) |
Eating whatever everybody else is eating |
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Obesity |
disorder of positive energy balance, in which energy intakes exceeds energy expenditures |
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Eating disorders |
Anorexia nervosa Bulimia nervosa |
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Anorexia nervosa |
involves: Self-starvation Intense fear of weight gain/body dissatisfaction Denial of serious consequences |
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Libido |
motivation for sexual activity and pleasure |
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Sexual response cycle |
describes the phases of physiological change during sexual activity, which comprises of four primary stages; excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution |
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Refractory period |
time period during which erection and orgasm are not physically possible |
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Sexual orientation |
consistent perference for seuxal relations with members of the opposite sex or same sex, or either sex i.e. heterosexuality, homosexuality, bisexuality |
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Gender roles |
accepted attitudes and behaviours of males and females |
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Sexual scripts |
set of rules and assumptions about the sexual behaviours of males and females |
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Testosterone |
hormone that is involved in the development of sex characteristics and the motivation of sexual behaviour |
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Sex guilt |
negative emotional feelings for having violated culturally accepted standards of appropriates |
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Need to belong (affiliation motivation) |
motivation to maintain relationships that involve pleasant feelings such as warmth, affection, appreciation, and mutual concern for each person's well-being |
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Passionate love |
associated with a physical and emotional longing for the other person |
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Compassionate love |
related to tenderness, and to affection we feel when our live are intertwined with another person |
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Achievement motivation |
drive to perform at high levels and to accomplish significant goals |
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Approach goal |
enjoyable an pleasant incentive that a person is drawn toward, such as praise, financial reward, or a feeling of satisfaction |
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Avoidance goal |
attempt to avoid an unpleasant outcome such as shame, embarrassment, losing money, or feeling emotional pain |
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Self-efficacy |
individual's confidence that he or she can plan and execute a course of action in order to solve a problem |
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Self-determination theory |
individual's ability to achieve their goals and attain psychological well-being is influenced by the degree to which he or she is in control of the behaviours necessary to achieve those goals |
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Extrinsic motivation (or a performance motive) |
motivation geared toward gaining rewards or public recognitions, or avoiding embarrassment |
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Amotivational |
feeling of having little or no motivation to perform a behaviour |
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Intrinsic motivation (or a mastery motive) |
process of being internally motivated to perform behaviours and overcoming challenges such as having a genuine desire to master a task rather than being motivated by a reward |
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Over-justification effect |
if you give someone a reward (other than verbal praise) for an intrinsically motivated behaviour, the intrinsic motivation decreases, as does the frequency of the behaviour |
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Framing effect |
the correct course of action is not obvious, different phrasing of the question of problem can produce different results |
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Emotion |
behaviour with the following three components; -Subjective thought and or experience -Accompanying patterns of neural activity and physical arousal -Observable behavioural expression |
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Amygdala |
group of nuclei in the medial portion (near the middle) of the temporal lobes in each hemisphere of the brain |
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James-Lange theory of emotion |
this view suggested that our physiological reactions stimuli precede the emotional experience |
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Cannon-Bard theory of emotion |
suggested that the brain interprets a situation and generates subjective emotional feelings, and that these representations in the brain trigger responses in the body |
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Facial feedback hypothesis |
suggests that our emotional expressions can influence our subjective emotional states |
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Two-factor theory |
holds that patterns of physical arousal and the cognitive labels we attach to them form the basis of ours emotional experiences |
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Emotional dialects |
variations across cultures in how common emotions are expressed |
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Display rules |
refer to the unwritten expectations we have regarding when it is appropriate to show a certain emotion |
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Personality |
thinking, feeling, and behaving that is unique to each individual, and remains relatively consistent over time situations |
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Idiographic approach |
focusing on creating detailed descriptions of a specific person's unique personality characteristics |
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Nomothetic approach |
examine personality in large groups of people, with the aim of making generalization about personality structure |
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Personality trait |
person's habitual patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving |
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Barnum effect |
easy for people to be convinced that a personality profile describes them well |
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Factor analysis |
used to group items that people respond to similarity; for instance, the terms friendly, warm, and kind have similar meanings, and can be grouped in a cluster, referred to as a factor |
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Five factor model |
a trait-based theory of personality based on the finding that personality can be described using five major dimensions |
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What's in the Five Factor Model |
Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism |
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Openness |
Individuals with high openness are the dreamers and creative; they tend to be more "open to new things" |
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Conscientiousness |
Highly conscientious people are the organizers, efficient, self-disciplined, and dependable |
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Extraversion |
(High E) are the socializers and sensation seekers. Comfortable in more stimulating environments, and love the company of others Low in introvertedness |
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Introverts |
(Low E) are the quiet ones. Tend to be more cautious and reserved |
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Agreeableness |
If highly agreeable people (high A's) are warm and friendly people, easy to like, easy to be friends with, easy to have as part of your group |
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Neuroticism |
"neurotic" is not generally considered a compliment.
People high in neuroticism (high Ns) are often difficult to deal with, as their emotional volatility and general tendency to experience negative emotions makes them not much fun to be around
Low N's take the good with the bad and deal with problems as they arise, but feel no need to create problems where there aren't any |
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HEXACO model of personality |
six factor theory that generally replicates the five factors of the FFM and adds one additional factor: Honestly-Humility |
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The Dark triad |
Refers to: Machiavellianism Psychopathy Narcissism describes a person who is socially destructive, aggressive, dishonest, and likely to commit harm in general |
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Machiavellianism |
tendency to use people and to be manipulative and decietful |
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Psychopathy |
tendency toward having shallow emotional responses |
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Narcissism |
reflects an egotistical preoccupation with self-image and an excessive focus on self-importance |
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Right-wing Authoritarianism (RWA) |
Three key tendencies: 1-Obeying orders and deferring to the established authorities in a society 2-Supporting aggression against those who dissent or differ from the established social order 3-Believing strongly in maintaining the existing social order |
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Temperaments |
Relatively rudimentary; genes affect personalities |
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3 Types of Temperaments |
Well-adjusted Under-controlled Inhibited |
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Well-adjusted temperaments |
Self-control, confident, not overly upset |
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Under-controlled temperaments |
impulsive, restless, distractable, emotionally volatile |
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Inhibited temperaments |
socially uncomfortable, fearful, easily upset by strangers |
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State |
a temporary physical or psychological engagement that influences behaviour |
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What are the 4 influences of behaviour? |
Locations, associations, activities, subjective state |
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Reciprical determinism |
behaviour, internal (personal) factors, and external (situational) factors interact to determine one another, and that our personalities are based on interactions among these three aspects |
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Humourism |
explained both physical illness and disorders of personality as a result from imbalances from in the key fluids in the body (blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile) |
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What were the 4 humour fluids of the body? |
Blood Phlegm Black bile Yellow bile |
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Phrenology |
the theory that personality characteristics could be assessed by carefully meaning the outer skull |
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Arousal theory of extraversion |
argues that extraversion is determined by people's threshold for arousal |
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Ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) |
plays a critical role in controlling this arousal response |
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Behavioural activation system (BAS) |
a "GO" system, arousing the person to action in the pursuit of desired goals |
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Behavioural inhibition system (BIS) |
more of a "danger" system, motivating the person to action in order to avoid punishments or other negative outcomes |
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Conscious mind |
current awareness, containing everything you are aware of right now |
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Unconscious mind |
much more vast and powerful but inaccessible part of your consciousness operating without your conscious endorsement or will to influence and guide your behaviours |
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Id |
represents a collection of basic biological drives, including those directed toward sex and aggression |
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Superego |
comprised of our values and moral standards |
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Ego |
the decision maker, frequently under tension, trying to reconcile the opposing urges of the id and superegeo |
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Defence mechanisms |
unconscious strategies the ego uses to reduce or avoid anxiety |
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List of defence mechanisms |
Main ones: Repression, denial, and rationalization Others: Displacement, identification, projection, reaction formation, sublimation |
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Repression |
keeping distressing information out of conscious awareness by burying it into the unconscious |
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Denial |
Refusing to acknowledge unpleasant information, particular about oneself |
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Rationalization |
Attempting to hide one's true motives (even from oneself) by providing what seems like a reasonable explanation for unacceptable feelings or behaviours |
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Displacement |
transforming an unacceptable impulse into a less unacceptable or neutral behaviour |
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Identification |
unconsciously assuming the characteristics of a more powerful person in order to reduce feelings of anxiety or negative feelings about the self |
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Projection
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keeping yourself unaware of undesirable qualities that you possess by instead attributing those qualities to other groups or people |
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Reaction formation |
altering an impulse that one fines personally unacceptable into its opposite |
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Sublimation |
transforming unacceptable impulse into socially acceptable or even pro-social alternatives |
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Fixation |
becoming preoccupied with obtaining the pleasures associated with a particular stage |
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Freud's Stages of development |
The oral stage The anal Stage The Phallic stage The latency stage The genital stage |
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The oral stage (0-18 months) |
oral fixation can occur if the infant fails to transition out of the oral stage e.g. nail-biting habit |
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The anal stage (2-3 years) |
toilet training and the control of bowel movements takes up a lot of the toddler's awareness failure to transition can be a super slop or a clean-freak |
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The phallic stage (3-6 years) |
bodily attention shifts to the genitals as children become aware of differences between boys and girls and start to heavily identify with one gender Boys go through Oedipus complex, have Castration anxiety Girls go through penis envy |
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Oedipus complex |
boys become sexually attracted to their mothers, competing with the father for the mother's attention |
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Castration anxiety |
fear of castration (neutering) by the father |
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Penis envy |
Girls missing that void that boys have; a penis |
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The latency stage (5-13 years) |
ego and superego have achieved a degree of general calm. Sexual nature of the libido is deemphasized, and is directed to more productive activities |
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The genital stage (puberty-adulthood) |
person emerges into a mature adult personality, with a fully developed capacity for productive work and satisfying and loving relationships |
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Projective tests |
personality tests in which ambiguous images are presented to an individual to elicit responses that reflect unconscious desire or conflicts |
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Rorschach inkblot test |
People are asked to describe what they see on the inkblot, and psychologists interpret this description using a standardized scoring and interpretation method |
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Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) |
asks respondents to tell stories about ambiguous pictures involving various interpersonal situations |
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Analytical psychology |
focuses on the role of unconscious archetypes in personality development |
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Personal unconscious |
a vast repository of experiences and patterns that were absorbed during the entire experiential unfolding of the person's life |
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Collective unsconscious |
separate, non-personal realm of the unconscious that holds the collective memories and mythologies of humankind, stretching deep into our ancestral past |
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Archetypes |
images and symbols that reflect common "truths" held across cultures, such as universal life experiences or types of people |
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Inferior complex |
the struggle many people have with feelings of inferiority, which stems from experiences of helplessness and powerlessness during childhood |
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A person-centred perspective |
people are basically good, and given the right environmenttheir personality will develop fully and normally |
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Self-actualization |
which is the drive to grow and fulfil one's potential |
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Social Psychologists |
study the interaction between the person and the situation |
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Kurt Lewin |
key founder/grandfather of social psychology Suggested B = f(P,E) where behaviour is a function of a Person and the Environment |
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B = f(P,E) |
behaviour is a function of the Person and the Environment
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Mimicry |
taking on for ourselves the behaviours, emotional displays, and facial expressions of others. Implicit, unconscious level of our awareness is constantly shaped and patterned by other people |
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Chameleon effect |
people mimic others non-consciously, automatically coping others' behaviours without realizing it |
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Social norms |
the (unwritten) guidelines for how to behave in social context |
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Social loafing |
occurs when an individual puts less efforts into working on a task with others Arises form low efficacy beliefs, feeling one's contributions aren't important, not caring about the group's outcome, and feeling like others aren't trying very hard |
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Social facilitation |
occurs when one's performance is affected by the presence of others |
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Grouptihnk |
stifling of diversity that occurs when individuals are not able to express their perspectives instead of having to focus on agreeing with others and maintaining harmony in the group |
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Normative influence |
social pressure to adopt a group's perspective in order to be accepted, rather than rejected by the group |
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Informational influence |
occurs when people internalize the values and beliefs of the group, coming to believe the same things and feel the same ways for themselves |
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Bystander effect |
presence of other people actually reduces the likelihood of helping behaviour |
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Diffusion of responsibility |
occurs when the responsibility for taking action is spread across more than one person, thus making no single individual feel personally responsible |
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Pluralistic ignorance |
occurs when there is a disjunction between the private beliefs of individuals and the public behaviour they display to others |
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Explicit processes |
corresponds roughly to "conscious" thought, are deliberately, effortful, relatively slow, and generally under our intentional control |
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Implicit processes |
comprise our "unconscious" thought; they are intuitive, automatic, effortless, very fast, and operate largely outside of our intentional control |
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Dual-process models |
models of behaviour that account for both implicit and explicit processes |
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Person perception |
processes by which individuals categorize and form judgements about other people |
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Schemas |
organized clusters of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations about individuals and groups, which influence our attention and perceptual processes in many ways |
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Thin slices of behaviour |
very small sample of a person's behaviour |
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Self-fulfilling prophecies |
occurs when a first impression affects one's behaviour and then that affects other people's behaviour, leading one to "conform" the initial impression or expectation
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False consensus effect |
tendency to project the self-concept onto the world |
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Naive realism |
we tend to assume that the way we see things is the way that they are |
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Self-serving biases |
biased ways to processing self-relevant information to enhance our positive evaluation |
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Internal attribution (dispositional attributions) |
whereby the observer explains the behaviour of the actor in terms of some innate quality of that person |
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External attribution (situational attributions) |
whereby the observer explains the actor's behaviour as the result of the situation |
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Fundamental attribution error (FAE) |
tendency to over-emphasize internal (dispositional) attributions, and under-emphasize external (situational) factors |
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ingroups |
groups we feel positively forward toward and identify with (e.g. friends, family, team) |
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Outgroups |
those "other" groups that we don't identify with |
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Ingroup bias |
positive biases toward the self get extended to include one's ingroups, people become motivated to see their ingroups as superior to their outgroups |
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Minimal group paradigm |
how easily people will form social categories, Us vs. Them, even using criteria that are meaningless |
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Stereotype |
cognitive structure, a set of beliefs about the characteristics that are held by members of a specific group; these beliefs function as schemas, serving to guide how we process information about our social world |
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Prejudice |
an affective, emotionally driven process, including negative attitudes toward and critical judgements of other groups |
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Discrimination |
behaviour that disfavours or disadvantages of a certain social group in some way |
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Implicit association test (IAT) |
measures how fast people can respond to images or words flashed on a computer screen |
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Contact hypothesis |
predicts that social contact between members of different social groups is extremely important to overcoming prejudice |
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Elaboration likelihood model |
people are easily persuaded by the facts of the argument when they have their own interests in the topic even if motivation and opportunity is both not there |
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Central route to persuasion |
occurs when people pay close attention to the content of a message, evaluate the evidence presented, and examine the logic of the arguments aka, Critical |
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Peripheral route to persuasion |
depend upon other features that are not directly related to the message itself, such as the attractiveness of the person delivering the information aka, Shallow |
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Construal-level theory |
describes how information affects us differently depending on our psychological distance from the information |
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Identifiable victim effect |
describes how people are more powerfully moved to action by the story of a single suffering person, than by information about the whole group of people |
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Experiential system |
operates more implicitly, quickly, and intuitively and is predominantly emotional |
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Attitude inoculation |
strategy for straightening attitudes and making them more resistant to change by first exposing people to a weak counter-argument and then refuting that argument |
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Analytical system |
operates more as the explicit level of consciousness, is slower and more methodical, and uses logic and discursive thinking to try and understand reality |
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Processing fluency |
which is the ease with which information is processed |
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Door-in-the-face technique |
which involves asking for something relatively big, then following with a request for something relatively small |
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Foot-in-the-door technique |
which involves making a simple request followed by a more substantial request |
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Cognitive dissonance theory |
when we hold inconsistent beliefs, this creates a king of aversive inner tension or "dissonance", we are then motivated to reduce this tension in whatever way we can |
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Health psychologists |
study the positive and negative effects that humans' behaviour and decisions have on their health, survival, and well-being |
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Smoking negatives... |
21% of deaths in Canada's last decade 7-14 years lower life expectancy People more exposed to smoking in media are more likely to smoke (positive correlation) |
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Body mass index (BMI) |
statistic commonly used for estimating a healthy body weight given an individual's height |
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Development of a Set point (contributed by genes) |
hypothesized mechanism that serves to maintain body weight around a physiologically programmed level |
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Social Contagion |
often subtle, unintentional spreading of a behaviour as a result of social interactions |
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Psychosocial influences on health |
Poverty and discrimination Family and social environment Social Contagion |
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Poverty and discrimination |
being poor results in unhealthy lifestyle and stress (junkfood and bills) |
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Family and social environment |
stress and family habits carry over |
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Social contagion |
people copy similar patterns from peers that can influence health (College resident experiment) |
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Major contributions to obesity |
Genetics make up about 50%-90% for body weight Body weight positively correlates with time spent on T.V (snacking and exposure to commercials) No relationships with computer (possibly due to being more involved) |
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Stress |
psychological and physiological reaction that occurs when perceived demands exceed existing resources to meet those demands Includes: Stressors and Stress response |
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Stressors |
the events causing the stress |
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Stress response |
the experiences that respond to these events |
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Appraisal |
cognitive act of assessing and evaluating the potential theart and demands of an event 2 Steps of Appraisal: Primary and Secondary appraisal |
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Primary appraisal |
individual perceives potential threats (yes/no is this stressful) |
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Secondary appraisal |
individual thinks of ways to cope with the threat |
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Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) |
ranking of stressful events according to their magnitude -according to the creators of the scale, those who score higher are more prone to illness |
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Fight or flight response |
set of physiological changes that occur in response to psychological or physical threats |
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General adaptation syndrome (GAS) |
theory of stress responses involving stages of alarm, resistance and exhuastion Lead to the research of Autonomic nervious system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis |
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Autonomic nervous system |
triggered by hypothalamus causing the adrenal medulla to release epinephrine and norepinephrine to cause the symptoms of flight-or-fight |
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Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis |
neural and endocrine circuit that provides communication between the nervous system (hypothalamus) and the endocrine system (pituitary and adrenal glands) -Leads to the release of cortisol |
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Cortisol |
hormone secreted by the adrenal complex (outer part of the adrenal gland) that prepares the body to respond to stressful circumstances type of glucorticoid which may be more prevalent in those with depression |
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Men are more like to react in.... And women are more like to react in.... |
Men = fight or flight Women = tend or befriend |
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Oxytocin |
stress-sensitive hormones that is typically associated with maternal bonding and social relationships. Affects things such as uterus contractions, bond, trust, wound healing, and orgasm |
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Psychoneuroimmunology |
study of the relationship between immune system and nervous system functioning |
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Coronary heart disease |
condition in which plaques form in the blood vessels that supply the heart with blood and oxygen, resulting in restricted blood flow |
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Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) |
disease caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) |
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How stress effects the health
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-leads to increased coronary heart disease (men are 30% more likely to have it) -leads to increase CHD due to encouraged eating -Reduces the effectiveness of HIV treatment -Reduces immune system to fight cancer |
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Type A personality |
describes people who tend to be impatient and worry about time, and are easily angered, competitive, and highly motivated |
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Type B personality |
describes people who are more laid back and characterized by a patient easygoing, and relaxed disposition |
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Coping |
refers to the process used to manage demands, stress, and conflicting |
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What are the two types of coping |
Problem focused coping and Emotion focused coping |
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Positive psychology |
uses scientific methods to study human strengths and potential |
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Broaden-and-build theory |
positive emotions defuse the effects of the negative emotions, resulting in less amount of damage that stress the negative emotions can have on the body |
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Optimism |
tendency to have a favourable, constructive view on situations and to expect positive outcomes |
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Pessimists |
tend to have a negative perception of life and expect negative outcomes |
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Pessimistic explanatory style |
which is the tendency to interpret and explain negative events as internally based -as being due to that person rather than to an external situation -and as a constant, stable quality |
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People high in neuroticism has... |
negative affectivity |
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Negative affectivity |
tendency to respond to problems of anxiety, hostility, anger, guild, or nervousness |
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Stress and extraversion |
people high in extraversion are relatively outgoing and social their social nature has benefits when coping with stress such s seeking other's advice and taking things constructively |
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Stress and agreeableness |
get along with people around them therefore, they're willing to seek help from others |
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Stress and Conscientiousness |
tend to be quite disciplined and focused on what is expected from them Have a higher tolerance for stress |
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Stress and Openness to experience |
tend to be intellectually curious and aware of their emotions |
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Resilience |
the ability to effectively recover from illness or adversity |
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Post-traumatic growth |
capacity to grow and experience long-term positive effects in response to negative events |
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Biofeedback |
therapeutic technique involving the use of physiological recording instruments to provide feedback that increases awareness of bodily |
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What are the two general varieties of meditation |
1. Concentrative or focused attention meditation 2. Mindfulness or open monitoring meditation |
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Mindfulness-based-reduction (MBSR) |
structured relaxation program based on elements of mindfulness meditation |
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Integrated mind-body training (IMBT) |
involves a combination of relaxation and posture correction, as well as heightening one's awareness of one's body |
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Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) |
protein in the nervous system that promotes survival, growth, and the formation of new synapses Boosted by exercise, which can help reduce rate of memory decline and boost overall health |
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Learned helplessness |
acquired suppression of avoidance or escape behaviour in response to unpleasant, uncontrollable circumstances |
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Compensatory control |
psychological strategies people use to preserve a sense of non-random order when personal control is compromised |
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Asylums |
residential facilities for the mentally ill |
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Which 2 people lead to moral treatment for the mentally ill? |
Philippe Pinel and Dorothea Dix |
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Philippe Pinel |
Allowed mental patients to walk around freely in French hospital |
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Dorothea Dix |
Teacher who started strikes and advocated rights for the mentally ill |
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Invention of Chlorpromazine (Thorazine in U.S.)... |
was first treatment for Schizophrenia Psychiatric inpatients dropped by over 80% However, homelessness increased because families didn't take them back/jobs didn't hire them |
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Medical model |
sees psychological conditions through the same lens as Western medicine tends to see physiological processes in order to alleviate symptoms Shifted to Biopsychosocial model |
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Biopsychosocial model |
Mental illness was a combination of biological factors, psychological factors, and social/cultural factors |
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Maladaptive |
whether it causes distress to oneself or others, impairs day-today functioning or increases risk of injury or harm to onself or others |
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Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) |
Created by American Psychiatric Association (APP) as a standardized manual of symptoms to help provide a diagnosis of disorders |
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What is included in the DSM for each disorder |
set of symptoms and the number of symptoms Etiology (origin or causes) or symptoms Prognosis or prediction of how these symptoms will persist or change over time |
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Mental disorder defence |
defendant was in such an extreme, abnormal state of mind when committing the crime that he or she could not discern that the actions were legal or morally wrong |
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Personality disorders |
particularly unusual patterns of behaviour (relative to one's cultural context) that are maladaptive, distressing to oneself or others, and resistant to change |
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Borderline personality disorder (BPD) |
characterized by intense extremes between positive and negative emotions , an unstable self, impulsivity, and difficult social relationships |
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Narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) |
characterized by an inflated sense of self-importance and an excessive need for attention and admiration, as well as intense self-doubt and fear of abandonment |
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Histrionic personality disorder |
characterized by excessive attention seeking and dramatic behaviour |
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Antisocial personality disorder |
characterized by a profound lack of empathy or emotional connection with others -Resistant to treatment because they're not distressed by their actions and not motivated to change |
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Comorbidity |
presence of two disorders simultaneously |
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Dissociative disorder |
category of mental disorders characterized by a split between conscious awareness from feeling, cognition, memory, and identity Includes: Dissociative fugue |
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Dissociative fugue |
period of profound autobiographical memory loss People in fugue status may go so far as to develop a new identity in a new location with no recollection of their past |
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Depersonalization disorder |
strong sense of the surreal, the feeling that one is not connected to one's body the feeling of disconnection from one's regular identity and awareness |
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Dissociative amnesia |
severe loss of memory, usually for a specific stressful event, when no biological cause for amnesia is present |
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Dissociative identity disorder (DID) or Multiple personality disorder |
person experiences split in identity such that they feel different aspects of themselves as though they were separated from each other. This can be severe enough that the person constructs entirely separate personalities, only one which will generally be in control at a time |
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Anxiety disorders |
category of disorders involving fear or nervousness that is excessive, irrational, and maladaptive |
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Types of anxiety disorders |
Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) Panic disorder Phobia Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) |
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Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) |
involves frequently elevated levels of anxiety generally from the normal challenges and stresses of everyday life |
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Panic disorder |
anxiety disorder marked by occasional episodes of sudden, very intense fear Can lead to agoraphobia |
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Agoraphobia |
intense fear of having a panic attack in public, avoiding public places |
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Phobia |
severe irrational fear of a very specific object or situation or social setting Can be broken into: Specific phobia Social anxiety disorder (social phobia) |
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Specific phobia |
involves an intense fear of a specific object, activity or organism |
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Social anxiety disorder (Social phobia) |
very strong fear of being judged by others or being embarrassed or humiliated in public Can be aided through exposure |
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Exposure |
repeatedly and in stages exposed to the object of his fear so that he can work past his emotional reactions |
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Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) |
plagued by unwanted, inappropriate, and persistent thoughts (obsessions), and tends to engage in repetitive, almost ritualistic behaviours (compulsions) |
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Types of Mood disorders |
Major depression Bipolar disorder (formerly manic depression) |
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Major depression |
disorder marked by prolonged periods of sadness, feelings of worthlessness and hopelessness, social withdrawal, and cognitive and physical sluggishness |
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Bipolar disorder (formerly manic depression) |
characterized by extreme high and lows in mood, motivation, and energy |
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Depressive (pessimistic) explanatory cycle |
set of habitual ways of explaining events to oneself which tends to be dysfunctional |
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Depressive explanatory cycle can be broken into... |
Internalizing Stabilizing Globalizing |
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Internalizing |
blaming problems on oneself "it was all my fault" |
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Stabilizing
|
believing this issue is permanent and irreversible. "this is always like this" |
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Globalizing |
believing that this always happens"this always happens" |
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Causes of depression |
Neurotransmitters - serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine Socio-economic status and environmental factors - poor neighbourhoods = stress and risk of unemployment and lack of connections
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Depression can lead... |
Suicide, 60% higher rate than teens for people 65 and older |
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Schizophrenia |
brain disease that causes the person to experience significant breaks from reality, a lack of integration of thoughts and emotions, and problems with attention memory |
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Schizophrenia occurs in 3 phases which are... |
Prodromal phase Active phase Residual phase |
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Prodromal phase (schizophrenia) |
people may become easily confused, have difficulty organizing their thoughts, lose interest, begin to withdraw from family and friends, lose their motivations, withdraw from life |
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Active phase (schizophrenia) |
people typically experience delusional thoughts, hallucinations, or disorganized patterns of thoughts, emotions, and behaviours |
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Residual phase (schizophrenia) |
people's predominant symptoms have disappeared or lessened considerably, and they may simply be withdrawn, have trouble concentrating, and lack motivation |
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Hallucinations |
alterations in perception, such that a person hears, sees, smells, feels, or tastes something that does not actually exist, except in that person's own mind |
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Delusions |
beliefs that are not based on reality (at least from the perspective of the person's general culture) |
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Disorganized behaviour |
describes the considerable difficulty people with schizophrenia may have completing the tasks of everyday life |
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What are the 5 types of schizophrenia? |
Paranoid Disorganized Catatonic Undifferentiated Residual |
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Paranoid schizophrenia |
delusional belief that one is being followed, watched, or persecuted and may also include delusions of grandeur or the belief that one has something special |
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Disorganized schizophrenia |
thoughts, speech, behaviour, and emotion that are poorly integrated and incoherent May also show inappropriate, unpredictable mannerisms |
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Catatonic schizophrenia |
Episodes in which a person remains mute or immobile for extended periods. May also exhibit repetitive, purposeless movements. |
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Undifferentiatedschizophrenia |
individuals who show a combination of the symptoms from more than one type of schizophrenia |
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Residualschizophrenia |
individuals who show some symptoms of schizophrenia but are neither in transition to a full-blown episode or in remission |
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Positive symptoms |
presence of maladaptive behaviours, such as confused and paranoid thinking, and inappropriate emotional reactions |
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Negative symptoms |
absence of adaptive behaviour, such as absent or flat emotional reactions, lack of interacting with others in a social setting, and a lack of motivation |
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Biological factors of schizophrenia |
Does show genetic link with identical twins having a 25-50% if one is diagnosed Fraternal = 10-17%, not linked to a single gene probably a gene complex People with schizophrenia have ventricular spaces that are 20-30% larger -Reduced brain volume by 2%, especially structures like the amygdala and hippocampus |
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Environmental, social, and cultural factors ofschizophrenia |
-those born during winter months (flu season during brain development) -Stress while pregnant -Marijuana? -Head injuries before the age of 10 -Families emotional expressiveness Lower responsiveness = less likely chance of schizophrenia (shocking concept) |
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Neurodevelopmental hypothesis |
outgrowth of disrupted neurological development early in the person's life (one of the leading perspectives on cause of schizophrenia) |
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Barriers preventing psychological treatment |
-Ambiguity of disorders
-Fear of social stigma -Lack of trust in physicians/treatments -Gender roles (masculinity) -Logistics (expense, accessibility, availability) -Involuntary treatment? Ethical standards |
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Different mental health providers |
Clinical psychologists Counselling psychologists Psychiatrists |
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Clinical psychologists |
Ph.D level of training Able to formally diagnose and treat mental health issues ranging from everyday and mild to the chronic and severe |
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Counselling psychologists |
Masters or Ph.D level of training Typically work with people needing help with more common problems such as stress, coping, and mild forms of anxiety and depression --> rather than severe disorders |
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Psychiatrists |
Medical degree, doctors degree Specialize in mental health and are allowed to diagnose and treat mental disorders through prescribing medications |
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Philippe Pinel and Dorothea Dix's actions lead to... |
Deinstituionalization |
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Deinstituionalization |
mental health patient were released back into their communities, generally after having their symptoms alleviated through medication |
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Low-level residential treatment centres |
housing facilities in which residents receive therapy and life skills training with the goal to re=integrate them back into society |
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Medium/High level centres |
same goal as low-level residential treatment centres but applies some restrictions on individual's freedoms For those who have more of a dangerous history |
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Community psychology |
focuses on identifying how individual's mental health is influenced by the neighbourhood, economics, community resources, social groups, and other community-based variables
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Empirically supported treatments (evidence-based therapies) |
treatments that have been tested and evaluated |
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Bibliotherapy |
the use of self-help books and other reading materials as a form of therapy, improves people's symptoms **does it really? |
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Insight therapies |
involves dialogue between client and therapist for the purposes of gaining awareness and understanding of psychological problems and conflicts |
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Psycho dynamic Therapies |
forms of insight therapy that emphasize the need to discover and resolve unconscious conflicts |
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Types of psychodynamic therapies |
Free association Dream analysis Resistance Transferance |
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Free association |
clients are encouraged to talk or write without censoring their thought |
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Dream analysis
|
examining details of what happens during a dream (manifest content) in order to gain insight on the true meaning of the dream, the emotion, the unconscious material that is communicated symbolically (latent content) |
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Manifest content |
details of the dream |
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Latent content |
unconscious material/symbolic meaning behind the dream |
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Resistance |
treatment that brings up unconscious material that the client wishes to avoid and the client engages in strategies for keeping the information out of the conscious awareness
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Trasnferance |
Psychoanalytic process whereby clients direct the emotional experiences that they are reliving toward the therapist -rather than the original person involved in the experiences |
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Object relations therapy |
variation of psychodynamic therapy that focuses on how early childhood experiences and emotional attachments influence later psychological functioning |
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Phenomenological approach |
therapist addresses the clients' feelings and thoughts as they unfold in the present moment, rather than looking for unconscious motives or dwelling in the past |
|
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Client-centered therapy (person-centred therapy) |
Developed by Carl rogers Focuses on individuals' abilities to solve their own problems and reach their full potential with the encouragement of the therapist |
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Behavioural therapies |
address problem behaviours, and the environmental factors that trigger them, as directly as possible |
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Systematic desensitization |
gradual exposure to a feared stimulus or situation is coupled with relaxation training |
|
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Virtual reality exposure (VRE) |
treatment uses graphical displays to create an experience in which the client seems to be immersed in an actual environment |
|
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Aversive conditioning |
behavioural technique that involves replacing a positive response to a stimulus with a negative response, typically by using punishment |
|
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Cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) |
form of therapy that consists of procedures such as cognitive restricting, stress inoculation training, and exposing people to experiences they may have a tendency to avoid |
|
|
Negative explanatory style |
tendency to make internal, stable, and global attributions for negative events |
|
|
Internal attributions |
blaming oneself for negative things that happen |
|
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Stable attributions |
seeing a situation as permanent and irreversible "it's never going to change" |
|
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Global events |
blowing things out of proportion rather than seeing the negative event as just that "my whole life is ruined" |
|
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Decentring |
occurs when one is able to "step back" from one's normal consciousness and observe oneself more objectively, as an observer |
|
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Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) |
involves combining mindfulness meditation with standard cognitive-behavioural therapy tools |
|
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Group therapy |
may be used to share personal stories and experiences, cheaper and more accessible |
|
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Systems approach |
orientation that encourages therapist to see an individual's symptoms as being influenced by many different interacting systems |
|
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Psychpharmacotherapy |
the use of drugs to attempt to manage or reduce clients' symptoms |
|
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Psychotropic drugs |
medications designed to alter psychological functioning |
|
|
Blood-brain barrier |
network of tightly packed cells that only allow specific types of substances to move from the bloodstream to the brain in order to protect delicate brain cells against harmful infections and other substances |
|
|
Antidepressant drugs |
medication designed to elevate mood and reduce other symptoms of depression |
|
|
Types of antidepressant drugs |
-Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)
-Tricyclic antidepressants -Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) -Mood stabilizers -Lithium |
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|
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) |
-first type of antidepressant that was developed and widely used -worked by deactivating monoamine oxidase (MAO), an enzyme that breaks down serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine at the synaptic clefts of nerve cells |
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Tricyclic antidepressants |
appear to work by blocking the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine |
|
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Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) |
-class of antidepressant drugs that block the reuptake of the neurotransmitter serotonin -most common include; Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil |
|
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Mood stabilizers |
drugs used to prevent or reduce the severity of mood swings experienced by people with bipolar disorder |
|
|
Lithium |
one of the first mood stabilizers to be prescribed regularly in psychiatry (1950s-1980s) was the standard drug treatment for depression and bipolar disorder |
|
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St. John's wort |
herbal remedy available in the drug stores that has a long history of use as a treatment for various conditions |
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Antianxiety drugs |
include Xanas, valium, and Ativan, affect the activity of gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA), and inhibitory neurotransmitter that reduces neural activity |
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Antipsychotic drugs |
generally used to treat symptoms of psychosis, including delusions, hallucinations, and severely disturbed or disorganized thought |
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Tardive dyskinesia |
movement disorder involving involuntary movement and facial tics |
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Atypical antipsychotics (2nd gen antipsychotics) |
makers of atypical antipsychotics claim that these drugs are less likely to produce extrapyramidal side effects including movement disorders that commonly occur when first-generation antipsychotics are prescribed |
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Types of technological and surgical methods for disorder treatments |
Frontal lobotomy - Includes leucotomy Focal lesions Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) Deep brain stimualtion (DBS) |
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Frontal lobotomy |
surgically removing regions of the cortex in hope of curing psychological problems
Includes leucotomy |
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Leucotomy |
surgical destruction of brain tissues in the prefrontal cortex |
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Focal lesions |
small areas of the brain tissue that are surgically destroyed |
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Electroconsulsive therapy (ECT) |
involves passing an electrical current through the brain in order to induce a temporary seizure |
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Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TSM) |
therapeutic technique in which a focal area of the brain is exposed to a powerful magnetic field |
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Deep brain stimulation (DBS) |
technique that involves electrically stimulating specific regions of the brain |
