Bio 201 Exam 2

Front 1

Solubility Product

Back 1

A critical value of the product of calcium and phosphate concentration in the tissue fluids leading to the formation of Hydroxyapatite crystals

Front 2

ectopic ossification

Back 2

Out-of-place formation of osseous tissue in the lungs, brain, eyes muscles, tendons, arteries, and other organs.

Front 3

Calculus

Back 3

A calcified mass in an otherwise soft organ such as the lungs.

Front 4

Mineral Resorption

Back 4

The process of dissolving bone and releasing the minerals into the blood, making them available for other uses

Front 5

Acid Phosphatase

Back 5

An enzyme secreted by the osteoclast that digests the collagen of the bone matrix.

Front 6

Mineral Deposition (Mineralization)

Back 6

A crystallization process in which calcium, phosphate, and other ions are taken from the blood plasma and deposited in bone tissue as hydroxyapatite.

Front 7

Roles of Calcium in the body

Back 7

Interneural communication, Enzyme co-factor
Muscle contraction, Cell signalling processes
Blood clotting, and Exocytosis

Front 8

Roles of Phosphate in the body

Back 8

DNA, RNA, ATP
Phospholipids
Correction of acid-base imbalances

Front 9

Hypocalcemia

Back 9

A calcium deficiency in the blood. Causes excessive excitability of the nervous system leading to muscle tremors, spasms, or tetany (the inability of muscles to relax.

Front 10

Hypercalcemia

Back 10

An excess of calcium in the blood rendering nerve and muscle cells less excitable than normal.

Front 11

Causes of Hypocalcemia

Back 11

Vitamin D deficiency, Diarrhea, Thyroid tumors,
Underactive parathyroid glands, Pregnancy, lactation.

Front 12

Hormones Regulating Calcium Homeostasis

Back 12

Calcitriol (Vitamin D)
Calcitonin
Parathyroid Hormone

Front 13

Calcitriol

Back 13

Produced by sequential action of the skin, liver, & kidney
Raises Blood Ca concentration by 1. Increasing Ca absorption by small intestine, 2. increasing Ca resorption from skeleton, 3. Ca resorption by kidney

Front 14

Calcitonin

Back 14

Secreted by C cells of thyroid when blood-Ca levels are too HIGH. Lowers concentration by 1. Osteoclast inhibition, 2. Osteoblast stimulation. May prevent bone loss in pregnant and lactating women.

Front 15

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)

Back 15

Raises Ca level by: 1. Stimulate osteoblasts to secrete RANKL to promote osteoclast population, 2. Promote kidney Ca resorption, 3. Promotes calcitriol synthesis in kidneys, 4. inhibits collagen synthesis by osteoblasts

Front 16

Orthopedics

Back 16

A branch of medicine dealing with bone disorders.

Front 17

Stress fracture

Back 17

a break caused by abnormal trauma to a bone.

Front 18

Pathological fracture

Back 18

a break in a bone weakened by some other disease, such as bone cancer or osteoporosis, usually caused by a stress that would not normally fracture a bone.

Front 19

Bone Fractures

Back 19

stress, pathological, nondisplaced, displaced, comminuted, greenstick

Front 20

Healing Stages of a Bone Fracture

Back 20

1. Formation of Hematoma
2. Granulation Tissue
3. Formation of soft callus & Conversion to hard callus
4. Remodeling

Front 21

Bone Tissues

Back 21

Epithelial Tissue
Connective Tissue
Nervous Tissue
Muscle Tissue

Front 22

Connective tissue composition and roles

Back 22

Widely spaced cells separated by fibers and ground substance. Connects organs, gives support & protection, Energy storage, heat production, movement and transportation of materials

Front 23

Connective Tissue Types

Back 23

Fibrous: Dense & Loose
Supportive: Cartilage & Bone
Fluid: Blood

Front 24

Dense Regular C.T.

Back 24

Densely packed parallel collagen fibers, compressed fibroblast nuclei, Tendons and ligaments

Front 25

Supportive Connective Tissue

Back 25

Cartilage: Hyaline, Elastic, Fibrocartilage
Bone: Spongy, Compact

Front 26

Cartilage

Back 26

Supportive, rubbery matrix. glucosaminoglycans, Chondroblasts. made of Collagen and Elastin fibers. Avascular.

Front 27

Perichondrium

Back 27

Found around most hyaline and all elastic cartilage.
2 Layers: Fibrous outer layer - Dense irregular C.T
Chondrogenic inner layer - contains many chondroblasts

Front 28

Hyaline Cartilage

Back 28

Most common. Chondrocytes in small clusters enclosed in lacunae. Usually has a perichondrium (except in articular cart.) Pliable, eases joint movement.

Front 29

Hyaline Cartilage Locations

Back 29

costal cartilage, nose
epiphyseal plate, trachea
bronchi, fetal skeleton

Front 30

Elastic Cartilage

Back 30

Hyaline Cartilage with weblike mesh of elastic fibers amongst lacunae. ALWAYS has perichondrium. Provides flexible elastic support. Found in: External ear, epiglottis, Eustachian canal.

Front 31

Fibrocartilage

Back 31

Contains extensive parallel collagen fibers with chondrocytes in lacunae. NEVER has perichondrium. Resists compression and absorbs shock. Found in pubic symphysis & intervertebral discs.

Front 32

Bone - Osseous Tissue

Back 32

Cells, Fibers, and Ground substance. Matrix hardened by mineral deposition.

Front 33

Cells of Osseous Tissue

Back 33

Osteogenic Cells in endosteum & periosteum
Osteoblasts
Osteocytes
Osteoclasts

Front 34

Bone Matrix

Back 34

1/3 Organic weight (collagen and other protein fibers)
proteoglycans, glycosaminoglycans, glycoproteins
Inorganic: hydroxyapatite and 10% calcium carbonate

Front 35

Bone Strength and Flexibility

Back 35

Minerals resist compression
Collagen Protein resists tension/twists
Adaptable with different stressors

Front 36

Osteoclast structure and function

Back 36

Sits in resorption bays on bone surface.
Ruffled border releases H+ HCl dissolves bone salts.
Acid phosphatase: a proteolytic enzyme that digests collagen.

Front 37

Endochondral Ossification

Back 37

Embryonic Mesenchyme forms model of hyaline cart. (mostly collagen) which is remodeled into bone.

Front 38

Steps in Endochondral Ossification

Back 38

1. Hyaline Cart. Model; 2. Bony Collar on inner surface of perichondrium; 3. Primary ossification center; 4. Blood vessels invade with osteoblasts/clast; 5. Secondary ossification; 6. Epiphyseal plate ossifies by 20 yrs.

Front 39

Epiphyseal Plate

Back 39

Hyaline cartilage; Separates marrows of epiphysis and diaphysis; Metaphysis on diaphyseal side; site of bone lengthening

Front 40

Bone Remodeling

Back 40

Osteoclasts resorb and osteoblasts deposit bone to remodel according to stresses and allowing body to access Ca+

Front 41

Requirements for Bone Growth

Back 41

Salts: Ca, P, Mg, F, Fe, Mn
Vitamins: A, K, B12, C and D3 (Calcitriol)
Hormones: Parathyroid, sex, calcitriol (Vit. D)

Front 42

Mineral Resorption

Back 42

Dissolving bone
Releasing minerals into blood
Carried out by osteoclasts by HCl and acid phosphatase

Front 43

Calcium in the Bones

Back 43

99% in bones:
Stable Pool
Exchangeable calcium (<1%)

Front 44

nonossified Calcium in the Body

Back 44

1%:
Free Ca2+ (45%)
Bound Ca in plasma proteins, not physiologically active
Mostly tightly regulated in the blood

Front 45

Calcium Phosphate Homeostasis must balance:

Back 45

Intake: Digestive system
Loss: Urinary and digestive systems
Exchange: Skeletal system

Front 46

Calcium Phosphate Homeostasis Regulated by:

Back 46

Calcitriol (vitamin D)
Calcitonin
Parathyroid hormone

Front 47

Joints

Back 47

Articulations of bone classified by mobility or by connective tissues between bones

Front 48

Joint Classification: Mobility

Back 48

--Diarthrosis: Freely movable (Elbow, Knee)
--Amphiarthrosis: Slightly moveable (Intervertebral discs)
--Synarthrosis: Little or no movement (teeth, skull)

Front 49

Joint Classification: Structural

Back 49

--Fibrous: Collagen (sutures, gomphoses, syndesmoses)
--Cartilaginous: (synchrondroses, symphyses)
--Synostoses: Bones fused by osseous tissue
--Synovial: joint cavity (amphiarthroses & diarthroses)

Front 50

Fibrous Joints: Sutures

Back 50

Immovable joints of the skull bound by collagen fibers
Serrate: Coronal, sagittal & lambdoid)
Lap: overlapping bevels at temporal and parietal bones
Plane or butt: palatine processes

Front 51

Fibrous Joints: Gomphoses

Back 51

Articulation of a tooth in its bony socket. Held in place by fibrous periodontal ligament.

Front 52

Fibrous Joint: Syndesmoses

Back 52

Joint in which two bone shafts are bound by a ligament only (Interosseous membrane)
Most moveable of fibrous joints
(Radius and Ulna; Tibia and fibula)

Front 53

Cartilaginous Joint: Synchondroses

Back 53

Bones joined by hyaline cartilage - mostly synarthrotic
- rib to sternum
-epiphyseal plate in children binds epiphysis & diaphysis

Front 54

Cartilaginous Joint: Symphyses

Back 54

Joined by fibrocartilage (intervertebral discs & pubic symphysis); Only slight movement is possible. Synarthrotic and amphiarthrotic.
NO Joint Cavity.

Front 55

Bony Joints: Synostoses

Back 55

Originally separate bones fused by osseous tissue
No Joint Cavity.

Front 56

Synovial Joint

Back 56

Diarthrotic joint where two bones are separated by a joint cavity filled with synovial fluid.

Front 57

Synovial Joint Anatomy

Back 57

Articular capsule;
Synovial fluid;
Articular cartilage;
Meniscus; Tendon; Ligament

Front 58

Articular Capsule

Back 58

- Fibrous Capsule &
- Synovial Membrane: Areolar connective tissue; Produces synovial fluid (hyaluronic acid and albumin)
- Provides lubrication, nourishment, shock absorption

Front 59

Non-Joint Synovial Membranes

Back 59

Bursae - filled with synovial fluid between bone & skin, tendons & bone, ligaments and bone
Tendon sheath - where tendons cross joints. Cylindrical double synovial sac

Front 60

Tendon Sheath and Bursae Examples

Back 60

Radial bursa
Ulnar bursa
Tendon sheaths of phalanges

Front 61

Movements of Synovial Joints (1)

Back 61

Flexion, Extension, & Hyperextension (hinges)
Abduction & Adduction
Elevation & Depression (shoulders, jaw)
Protraction and Retraction (Jaw)

Front 62

Movements of Synovial Joints (2)

Back 62

Lateral and Medial Excursion (biting chewing)
Circumduction (one end circles with other stationary)
Rotation (spin on long axis of bone)
Supination & Pronation

Front 63

Movements of Synovial Joints (3)

Back 63

Opposition & Reposition (thumb to fingers)
Dorsiflexion & Plantar flexion (raise & point toes)
Inversion & Eversion (soles turned medially & laterally)

Front 64

Synovial Joints: Ball-and-Socket

Back 64

Smooth hemispherical head fits within a cup-like depression.
- Multiaxial
(shoulder & hip)

Front 65

Synovial Joints: Hinge

Back 65

Convex surface fits into concave depression
- Monoaxial
(Elbows, Knees, fingers, toes)

Front 66

Synovial Joints: Saddle

Back 66

Two saddles fit together, concave in one direction, convex in the other.
- Biaxial
(trapeziometacarpal joint at the base of the thumb)

Front 67

Synovial Joints: Pivot

Back 67

One bone has projection that fits into ring-like ligament of another.
1st bone rotates on longitudinal axis relative to the other
(Atlanoaxial joint, proximal radioulnar joint)

Front 68

Synovial Joints: Gliding

Back 68

Flat articular surfaces in which bones slide over each other.
- Limited monoaxial (articular surface of vertebrae, between intercarpals & intertarsals, Sternoclavicular)

Front 69

Synovial Joints: Condyloid

Back 69

Oval convex surface on one bone fits into a similarly shaped depression on the next.
- Biaxial. (radiocarpal of wrist, metacarpophalangeals, occipital condyles & atlas

Front 70

Mechanical Advantage and Muscles as Levers

Back 70

Length of Effort Arm divided by resistance arm
Low MA = Low power, high speed, high range of motion
High MA = Opposites

Front 71

Classifications of Levers

Back 71

First Class: Resistance, Fulcrum Effort (Head tilt up)
2nd Class: Fulcrum, Resistance, Effort (Jaw opening)
3rd Class: Resistance, Effort, Fulcrum (Elbow/biceps)

Front 72

Osteoarthritis

Back 72

Joint wear: articular cartilage softens and degenerates
- crepitus crackling
- bone spurs develop on exposed bone tissue

Front 73

Rheumatoid Arthritis

Back 73

Autoimmune disease:
Antibodies attack synovial membrane
Enzymes in synovial fluid degrade cartilage & bones ossify; Remission occur; steroid & aspirin help