Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
132 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
Biological evolution
|
change in frequency of an inherited character from one generation to the next, or across many generations
|
|
|
Biological species
|
speices are group of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups
|
|
|
natural selection
|
differential survival and reproduction of individuals in a population
|
|
|
fitness
|
ability to survive and reproduce
|
|
|
adaptation
|
characteristic of an organism that is the result of natural selection
|
|
|
hardy-weinberg equilibrium theory
|
1. observed allele frequency - f(a)=q, f(A)=p
2. predicted genotype freq - f(AA)=p*p, f(Aa)=2pg, f(aa)=q*q 3. observed geno freq. f(AA)=#AA/N, f(aa)=#aa/N In h-w equilibrium if 2 and 3 match |
|
|
Disruptive selection
|
AA ^, Aa\/, aa^
*maintains both alleles at high frequencies |
|
|
Stablizing selection
|
AA \/, Aa^,aa \/
*increases genetic variation in a population |
|
|
Directional selection
|
AA ^, Aa \/, aa \/
or AA\/, Aa \/, aa^ *decreases genetic variation in a population |
|
|
mutation
|
changes in dna or order, ultimate source of genetic variation
|
|
|
non random mating
|
mating preferences cause changes in genetic makeup of population
|
|
|
immigration/ emigration
|
movement of genes into or out of a population
|
|
|
genetic drift
|
random genetic changes in a population
|
|
|
natural selection
|
differential survival and reproductionamong individuals in a population
|
|
|
relative fitness
|
1. divide after/ before
2. divide all by largest in #1 = relative fitness (1-s) |
|
|
phyletic gradualism
|
species evolve slowly
|
|
|
punctuated equilibrium
|
species evolve rapidly
|
|
|
anagenesis
|
change in lineage without speciation
|
|
|
cladogenesis
|
change in lineage with specialization
|
|
|
reproductive isolation
|
areas as a by-product of genetic change
|
|
|
prezygotic isolation
|
mating or zygote formation is prevented
*temporaral, behavioral, ecological, mechanical |
|
|
postzygotic isolation
|
hybrids often dead, sterile, or weak
-mating occurs but the offspring can't reproduce |
|
|
allopatric speciation
|
no touch or overlap, no gene flow
|
|
|
parapatric speciation
|
ranges touch but do not overlap significantly, gene flow is small
|
|
|
sympatric speciation
|
ranges overlap significantly
|
|
|
speciation by polypoidy
|
duplication of chromosomes
|
|
|
ordovician silurian extinction
|
440 mya, changes in sea levels due to glacian and deglacian, eliminated about 60% of genera marine organisms
*1 |
|
|
late devonian extinction
|
360 mya, 57% marine genera extinct
*2 |
|
|
permian triassic extinction
|
250 mya, biggest, comet/ asteroid impact- 95% all species extinct
*3 |
|
|
end triassic extinction
|
200 mya, lava floods from formation of atlantic ocean basic - 52% marine genera extinct
*4 |
|
|
cretaceous tertiary extinction (K-T)
|
65 mya, asteroid impact in Gulf of mexico - 52% marine genera, 18% land vertebrates, dinosaurs
*5 |
|
|
parsimony
|
tree w/ fewest # assumptions
|
|
|
homology
|
species are similar aand related, same structure, different function
|
|
|
analogy/convergent evolution
|
species similar, unrelated
|
|
|
3 main groups of fishes
|
1. jawless- gave rise to all other vertebrates, 550mya
2. osteichthyes-470mya, bony fishes=hinged jaws, vertebrate, paired fins 3. chondrichthyes-cartilagnious fishes- sharks, rays -bones in teeth and jaw |
|
|
swim bladder
|
located in osteichthyes, internal, air filled sac- provides buoyancy in water
|
|
|
3 main groups of amphibians
|
1. order apoda(caecilians)legless and blind, burrow in soil and eat arthropods
2. order urodela(salamanders)regenerate lost tail and limbs, terrestrial and aquatic species 3. order anura (frogs and toads)terrestrial and aquatic, catch food w/ sticy tongue, strong hind legs |
|
|
paedomorphosis
|
reaching reproductive maturity while still in immature form
|
|
|
4 major evolutionary innovations in reptiles
|
1. dry scaly skin prevents dehydration on land
2. expandable rib cage increase breathing efficiency 3. legs beneath body = more efficient 4. amniotic eggs (on land) |
|
|
albumen
|
egg white, water source for egg
|
|
|
allantois
|
garbage bag
|
|
|
yolk sac
|
protein and fat - energy source
|
|
|
amnion
|
shock absorber, fluid filled sac
|
|
|
chorion
|
membrane around amnion- where gases diffuse
|
|
|
ornithischian
|
bird hipped dinosaurs
|
|
|
saurischian
|
lizard hipped dinosaur, gave rise to birds
|
|
|
characterisitcs of birds
|
1. feathers/ flight
2. warm blooded 3. air sac system 4. 4-chambered heart 5. no teeth in modern birds 6. no bony tail in modern birds |
|
|
gizzard
|
muscular stomach for grinding food
|
|
|
adaptations for nocturnal hunting in owls
|
1. quiet plummage
2. big eyes fixed in socket = good night vision 3. neck grooves = turn 180 4. assymetric ears |
|
|
mammals evolved from...
|
therapsids
|
|
|
characteristics of mammals
|
1. warm blooded
2. mammary glands and milk to nourish offspring 3. hair made of kerotin (protein) 4. 4-chambered heart 5. well developed brain |
|
|
articular and quadrate bones in reptilian skull become what in mammals
|
malleus and incus of inner ear
|
|
|
monotremes
|
only living mammals that live eggs
|
|
|
marsupials
|
young develop in marsupium, pouch
|
|
|
placental mammals
|
developing embryo nourished by placenta in mothers uterus
|
|
|
3 main lineages of mammals
|
1. monotremes
2. marsupials 3. placental mammals |
|
|
characteristics of primates
|
1. all primates except humans have big toe seperated from others
2. thumb seperate from fingers 3. binocular vision 4. large brain and short jaws 5. flat nails on fingers and toes |
|
|
2 groups of primates
|
1. prosimians (lemurs, lorises, tarsiers of old world)
2. anthropoids (monkeys, apes, humans of new and old worlds) |
|
|
3 main groups of arthropoids
|
1. new world monkeys - arboreal, terrestrial, prehensile tail, nostrils open to the side
2. old world monkeys (no prehensile tail, arboreal and terrestrial, nostrils \/) 3. great apes (no tail, arboreal, terrestrial, large body, nostrils \/) |
|
|
prosimian most closely related to anthropoids
|
tarsier
|
|
|
most closely related to humans
|
chimps/ bonobo
|
|
|
most closely related to great apes and humans
|
old world monkeys
|
|
|
geographic origin of humans
|
africa
|
|
|
first appearance of primates
|
65 mya
|
|
|
humans and chimps diverged on seperate evolutionary branches ... mya
|
6 mya
|
|
|
hominid
|
branches of evolutinary tree most closely related to humans
|
|
|
1st hominid species to migrate our of africa
|
homo erectus 1.8 mya-200,00 years ago
|
|
|
multiregional hypothesis
|
1.8 mya homo erectus left africa to europe, aia, and australasia and over time evolved into homosapiens
|
|
|
replacement hypothesis
|
left africa, colonized in europe, asia, australasia. homosapeins evolved 200,000 years ago in africa. independently 100,000 years ago the population left africa and replaced all neanderthals
|
|
|
innate behaviors
|
instinctive behaviors
|
|
|
fixed action patterns (FAP)
|
a sequence of innate behaviors that is unchangeable and once initiated is carried to completion
|
|
|
imprinting
|
recognition, response, attachment of young to a particular adult or object
|
|
|
habituation
|
loss of responsiveness to unimportant stimuli, cry wolf effect
|
|
|
associative learning
|
ability of many animals to laren to associate one stimulus with another... pavlov's dog
|
|
|
operative conditioning
|
trial and error learning
|
|
|
reasoning, insight learning
|
formulating a course of action by understanding the relationships bw the parts of the problem.
|
|
|
anisogamy
|
difference in gamete size in males and females
|
|
|
monogamy
|
male and female mate for life, sexes are monomorphic= look alike
|
|
|
polygany
|
one male, many females... males showy, females drab
|
|
|
polyandry
|
one female, many males... females showy, males drab
|
|
|
leks
|
arena where males gather to display and females choose the best male among males present
|
|
|
inclusive fitness
|
your fitness plus the fitness of your closest relatives
|
|
|
population
|
individuals of the same species present together in the same area at the same time
|
|
|
population ecology
|
study of populations in relation to the enviornment
|
|
|
population size
|
how many individuals
|
|
|
population density
|
how many individuals per unit area
|
|
|
population dispersion
|
pattern of spacing among individuals... clumped (most common), uniform, random
|
|
|
survivorship
|
proportion of individuals alive during any given time interval
|
|
|
type 1 survivorship
|
high survivorship through early and middle ages - humans
|
|
|
type 2
|
relative constant survivorship through life -birds
|
|
|
type 3
|
low survivorship early in life - acorn
|
|
|
fertility/ fecundity
|
age specific summary of the reproduction rates in a population
|
|
|
why important in conservation bio to know which age class produces the most offspring
|
want to preserve age class where the maximum # eggs occurs
|
|
|
life history
|
the traits that affect an organisms schedule of survival and reproduction
|
|
|
semelparity
|
large numbers of offspring produced in a single repoductive bout
|
|
|
iteroparity
|
small numbers of offspring
|
|
|
exponential population growth
|
maximum growth rate under ideal conditions
|
|
|
logistic population growth
|
population growth is limited to carrying capacity
|
|
|
carrying capacity
|
max population an enviornment can support
|
|
|
density dependent factors
|
population size controlled by disease, competition, parasites, territorality, accumulation of wastes
|
|
|
allee effect
|
individuals in a population may have a hard time surviving or reproducing if population size is too small or too large
|
|
|
density independent factors
|
population size affected by natural disasters, climate changes... ice ages, hurricanes, etc...
|
|
|
ecology
|
how organisms interact with each other and their enviornment
|
|
|
community
|
organisms of different species living in teh same geographic area at the same time
|
|
|
habitat
|
place when an organism lives
|
|
|
niche
|
organism's functional role in a habitat or community
|
|
|
allens rule
|
mammals that live in the cold have shorter faces and limbs than mammals living in warmer areas
|
|
|
bergmanns rule
|
warm blooded animals that live in the cold are bigger than those that live in warm areas
|
|
|
competition (-,-)
|
nobody benefits
|
|
|
intra specific competition
|
competition between individuals of the same species... bad for population size, limits population size and growth
|
|
|
inter specific competition
|
competition between different species
|
|
|
character displacement
|
species evolve non-overlapping traits so they dont have to compete with each other
|
|
|
resourse partitioning
|
when species have divided the resources so they dont have to compete for the same food
|
|
|
competitve exlusion
|
one species excludes another through competition
|
|
|
herbivory, parasitism, predation (+,-)
|
one species doesnt the other is harmed
|
|
|
grazing
|
eating the whole plant
|
|
|
browsing
|
eating only part of the plant
|
|
|
most important herbivore in south and central american rainforests
|
leaf cutter ants and fungal gardens
|
|
|
parasitism
|
one organism feeds on the living tissues of another organism
|
|
|
parasitoid
|
usually consumes it while its alive
|
|
|
predation
|
one organism benefits the other dies
|
|
|
commensalism (+,0)
|
an interaction that benefits one species but has no effect on the other
ex: birds nest benefits birds no effect on tree |
|
|
mutualism (+,+)
|
an interaction that benefits both species
|
|
|
oldest mutualism on earth
|
eukaryotic cell between bacterial and archaen cell
|
|
|
co-evolution
|
reciprocal adaptations of two different species.
|
|
|
cryptic coloration
|
for hiding (Camo)
|
|
|
aposematic coloration
|
warns of poision
|
|
|
deceptive patterns or behaviors
|
to distract or food potential predators
|
|
|
batesian mimicry
|
when a harmless species mimics a harmful species
|
|
|
8. The loss of alleles due to Genetic drift in a very small population can be 'fixed' most easily by which of the following evolutionary forces?
A. Gene flow B. Immigration C. Migration D. Mutation E. Natural selection |
A
|
|
|
9. The evolution of unfeathered heads in the unrelated North American Turkey Vulture and the African Griffon Vulture illustrates what concept discussed in class?
A. Analogy B. Convergent evolution C. Homology D. Frequency-dependent selection E. a and b |
E
|
|
|
12. Which two character types are the least informative when constructing and evaluating a phylogentic tree?
a. Apomorphy b. Shared-derived c. Ancestral d. a and b e. a and c |
E
|
