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154 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Define cellular respiration
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process by which some organisms obtain energy from organic substances (primarily sugar)
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Define photosynthesis
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process by which CO2 is converted into organic substances (primarily sugar)
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Why are chloroplasts green?
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Because of light energy
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Name two things beside plants that can undergo photosynthesis
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Bacteria and protysts
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Once nutrients are in our cells, what do we do with them?
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Harness energy from the nutrients
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Breaking off of what during cellular respiration releases energy?
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Breaking off of a phosphate group releases energy
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What does cellular respiration do?
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It convets energy stored in chemical bonds into energy used by cells
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What do cells use as their energy source?
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ATP
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What is the energy currency of our cells?
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ATP
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What does ATP stand for?
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Adenosine triphosphate
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The release of a what from ATP liberates stored energy? What is this compared to?
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The release of a phosphate from ATP liberates stored energy. This is compared to the release of energy when you let go of a rubber band.
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What are the three functions of ATP?
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Mechanical work
Transport Work Chemical Work |
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Give an example of mechanical work done by ATP
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movement of proteins in muscles
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Give an example of transport work done by ATP
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movement of substances across membranes
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Give an example of chemical work done by ATP
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making complex molecules out of simple molecules
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ATP is in high demand throughout our bodies and is regenerated from what through what process?
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ATP is regenerated from ADP through cellular respiration
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What are the two types of cellular respiration?
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Aerobic (with oxygen)
Anaerobic (without oxygen) |
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Where does aerobic cellular respiration occur?
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In the mitochondria of the cell
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Where does anaerobic cellular respiration occur?
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In the ctyosol of the cell
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Which is more efficient? Aerobic or anaerobic cellular respiration?
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Aerobic respiration is much more efficient
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What is a by-product of anerobic respiration and what does this by-product lead to?
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The by-product is lactic acid, and it can elad to cramps
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All food is broken down to produce what?
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ATP
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What are the three stages of cellular respiration?
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Glycolosis ("glucose cutting"
Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle) Electron transport |
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Which steps in cellular respiration are anaerobic? Which are aerobic?
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Anaerobic: Glycolysis
Aerobic: Krebs Cycle and Electron Transport Chain |
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Describe glycolysis
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6-carbon glucose molecule is broken down into 2 3-carbon pyruvic acid molecules in the cytoplasm
Generates 4 ATP's, but requires 2 (so only a net of +2 ATP molecules) |
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Describe the krebs cycle
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Two pryuvic acid molecules enter mitochondria where they are broken down into 2 carbon molecules
The Krebs cycle strips them fo CO2 and electrons CO2 and electrons are produced/released |
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Describe the Electron transport chain
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It shuttles electrons back and forth along the chain, which generates energy
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Fats are broken down into what and what?
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Glycerol and fatty acids
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Proteins are broken down into their component what?
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Amino acids
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What is the ultimate source of energy for our planet?
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The sun
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Plants use light energy to rearrange the atoms of CO2 and H2O into what?
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Carbohydrates
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Photosynthesis is carried out in organelles called what?
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Chloroplasts
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Chloroplasts are comprised of what two things?
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Stroma (a thick fluid holding the...)
Thylakoids (called grana when in stacks) |
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Products of photosynthesis (sugars) then undergo what in the cytosol and mitochondria?
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Cellular respiration
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What is another by-product of photosynthesis?
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Oxygen
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Where does CO2 enter and oxygen exit in land plants?
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Through structures on the surface of the leaf called stomata
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What are the two steps in photosynthesis?
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Step 1: Light reactions (light energy is harvested)
Step 2: Calvin cycle (sugar is made) |
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Study the last 2 slides on page 9 of the photosynthesis notes.
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ok
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The products of photosynthesis are the reactants for what?
The products of cellular respiration are the reactants for what? |
Cellular respiration
Photosynthesis |
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We use nutrients for growth, maintenance, and reproduction. Which of the three is mitosis and meiosis involved in, respectively?
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Mitosis: growth, maintenance
Meiosis: reprodution |
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What percentage of time do cells spend dividing?
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5-10%
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Why do chromosomes condense and line up?
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It makes separating and moving the DNA much easier
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What is cancer?
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Unregulated cellular division
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Unregulated cellular division leads to what?
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A tumor, a mass of cells w/no apparent function in the body
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Cellular division is regulated so that cells divide only when what?
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When more cells are required and conditions are appropriate
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For what purposes do cells divide?
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To heal wounds, replace damaged cells, growth, reproduction
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What are benign tumors?
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Tumors that do not affect surrounding structures
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What are malignant tumors?
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Tumors that invade surrounding structures and are cancerous
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Malignant tumors can sometimes break away and start new cancers through what process?
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Metastasis
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Cancer travels through the body by way of what two systems?
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The lymphatic and the circulatory systems
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The lymphatic system collects fluids lost from what?
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The capillaries
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After cells metastasize, cells gain access to which system? What does this access to this system allow the cells to do?
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They gain access to the circulatory system which allows them access to almost anywhere in the body
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In what three ways do cancer cells differ from normal cells?
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Cancer cells:
divide when they should not invade surrounding tissue move to other locations in the body |
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What are the two types of cellular division with regard to reproduction?
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Sexual and asexual cellular division
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In sexual reproduction, genetic information comes from how many parents?
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2
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In asexual reproduction, genetic information comes from how many parents?
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1
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Cellular division as a result of sexual reproduction is called what?
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Meiosis
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Cellular division as a result of asexual reproduction is called what?
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Mitosis
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Sexual reproduction results in the formation of what type of cells?
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Sex cells
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Asexual reproduction results in the formation of what type of cells?
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Somatic (body) cells
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The cells produced from asexual reproduction are a what of the parent cell?
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An identical copy
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Give a few examples of organisms that reproduce by the method of asexual reproduction?
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Amoebas, some plants, some salamanders, some lizards and fish
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Before dividing, a copy of what must first be made?
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DNA
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Where is DNA located in eukaryotic cells and what does it carry?
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It is located within the nucleus and it carries genes
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Each chromosome is copied and the copy is called a what?
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A sister chromatid
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Genes contain the instructions for what?
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For building the proteins that cells require
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How many chromosomes do humans have?
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46
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DNA is organized into structures called what? What can these structures carry?
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The structures are called chromosomes and can carry hundreds of genes along their length
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When a chromosome is replicated during cell division, the copy carries the same number of what?
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DNA and genes
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The sister chromatid is connected to the original DNA by a what?
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A centromere
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DNA is a double stranded molecule made of what?
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Made of 2 single strands of nucleotids that are bonded together
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The handrails of the DNA molecule are called the backbone, which is made of what two things?
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Sugars and phosphates
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What are the rungs of the DNA molecule made of?
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Nitrogenous bases
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What three things are nucleotides comprised of?
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A sugar, a phosphate, and a nitrogen-containing base
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What is DNA comprised of?
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Long strings of nucleotides
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Adenine pairs with what in DNA?
Guanine pairs with what in DNA? |
Thymine
Cytosine |
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Adenine pairs with what in RNA?
Guanine pairs with what in RNA? |
Uracil
Cytosine |
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Who determined the structure of the DNA molecule?
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James Watson and Francis Crick
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When DNA is undergoing replication, the DNA molecule separates at what type of bond that holds the bases together?
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It separates at the hydrogen bonds
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What enzyme adds the correct base to the new single strand of DNA during DNA replication?
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The enzyme DNA polymerase
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After DNA replication, each new DNA molecule is what?
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Half new and half from the old molecule
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When an entire chromosome is copied, the two sister chromatids are connected at the what?
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at the centromere
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Is mitosis sexual or asexual division?
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Asexual
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What are the three major steps or stages to the cell cycle in mitosis?
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Interphase
Mitosis Cytokinesis |
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What are the products of mitosis?
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2 new daughter cells identical to the original cell
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What 6 things happen in interphase?
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Organelles duplicated
Cell gets larger DNA is copied Chromosomes are replicated Sister chromatids connected by centromeres Synthesis of proteins necessary for mitosis |
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What are the four steps of mitosis?
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Prophase
Metaphase Anaphase Telophase |
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What happens in prophase?
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The replicated chromosomes condense
Microtubules form at the poles of the cell The nuclear envelope disintegrates |
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What happens in metaphase?
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Replicated chromosomes line up across equator of the cell
Microtubules attach to the centromeres |
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What happens in anaphase?
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The centromere splits
Microtubules pull sister chromatids apart towards poles |
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What happens in telophase?
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Nuclear envelope reforms around chromosomes
Chromosomes revert to uncondensed form |
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What happens in cytokinesis?
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The cell itself divides in half creating two identical daughter cells
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Mutations can be in cell control proteins called what?
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proto-oncogenes
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How can mutations to cells occur?
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They can be inherited or induced by exposure to carcinogens that damage DNA and chromosomes
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What in normal cells prevents them from dividing all the time, which would force the new cells to pile up on each other
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Contact inhibition
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How does anchorage dependence work in normal cells and in cancer cells?
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In normal cells, cells always stay anchored to other cells (or to a surface).
In cancer cells, there is no anchorage dependence, so cells can move freely. |
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Most cells divide how many times before division stops?
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60-70
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How many times can cancer cells divide?
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Indefinitely
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Can a cell become malignant because of one change or hit to the cell?
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No. It requires multiple hits or changes for a cancer cell to become malignant.
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What is a biopsy?
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The surgical removal of cells, tissue, or fluid for analysis
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What are three types of treatment for cancer?
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Laproscopy: incision made and tumor surgically removed
Chemotherapy: chemicals that kill dividing cells are injected into the bloodstream Radiation therapy: high energy particles damage DNA so cells won't divide |
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Where does meiosis occur?
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Within the gonads, or sex organ (testes and ovaries)
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What type of cells does meiosis produce?
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Gametes (sex cells: sperm & egg)
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Chromosomes have _______ the chromosomes that somatic cells have
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half
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Fertilization results in what?
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A full compliment of chromosomes
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What is a karyotype?
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a picture of the complete set of chromosomes
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Humans have how many pairs of homologous chromosomes? What does this consist of?
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23
It consists of 22 pairs of autosomes and a pair of sex chromosomes |
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Each homologous pair has the same what?
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Genes
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Different variations of the same gene are called what?
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Alleles
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What happens during interphase of meiosis?
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The DNA is copied and the homologous chromosomes consist of sister chromatids
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What major thing happens in meiosis I?
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Homologous pairs are separated
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What major thing happens in meiosis II?
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Sister chromatids are separated
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What happens in prophase I?
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homologous pairs come together
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What happens in metaphase I?
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the homologous pairs line up at the equator
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What happens in anaphase I?
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the homologous pairs separate
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What happens in telophase I?
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the nuclear envelopes reform
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What happens in prophase II?
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nuclear envelopes disappear
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What happens in metaphase II?
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sister chromatids line up at the equator
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What happens in anaphase II?
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sister chromatids separate
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What happens in telophase II?
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nuclear envelopes reform
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How many cells result from meiosis?
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4
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Are the daughter cells of meiosis haploid or diploid?
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Haploid; they have half the genetic info as the parent
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Describe crossing over
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When the homologous pairs are in prophase 1 of meiosis, they can exchange genetic information
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What does crossing over do?
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It adds a ton of genetic variation
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Describe random alignment
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When the homologous pairs line up during metaphase I of meiosis, the way they place themselves is random
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What is the biggest leading cause of cancer that the book identifies?
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SMOKING!
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Who is the father of genetics?
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Gregor Mendel
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What is the law of segregation?
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Each gamete receives only one copy of a gene
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What is the law of independent assortment?
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alleles of different genes assort independently of one another during gamete formation
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What is quantitative genetics?
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The study of continuous traits (height, weight) and their underlying mechanisms
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Most children are similar to who?
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Their parents
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Siblings tend to be similar to whom?
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To each other
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Each child is a combination of what?
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Parental traits
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The combination of what two traits is unique for each child?
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Paternal and maternal traits
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_______ are segments of DNA that carry info about how to make proteins
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Genes
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Structural proteins
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for things like hair
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Functional proteins
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for things like breaking down lactose
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All cells have the same what?
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the same genes
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For each gene, there is a _______ percent chance of having the same allele as a sibling
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50
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How many combinations are there for the way the homologous chromosomes could line up and separate?
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Over 8 million
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Gametes combine randomly--without regard to the alleles they carry in a process called what?
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Random fertilization
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What four things results in unique combinations of alleles?
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Mutation, crossing over, independent assortment, random fertilization
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Are fraternal twins identical?
Are they monozygotic or dizygotic? How many eggs involved? |
No.
They are dizygotic. 2 eggs were separately fertilized |
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Are identical twins identical?
Are they monozygotic or dizygotic? How many eggs involved? |
Yes
They are monozygotic One fertilized egg separated into two |
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Define genotype
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combination of alleles
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Define homozygous
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2 of same alleles
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Define heterozygous
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2 different alleles
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Define phenotype
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the physical outcome of the genotype
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define dominant
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can mask a recessive allele
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define recessive
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can be masked by a dominant allele
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define incomplete dominance
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alleles produce an intermediate phenotype
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define codominance
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both alleles are fully expressed
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Name 3 genetic diseases and how they result
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Cystic fibrosis: 2 recessive alleles
Huntington's disease: 2 dominant alleles Sickle-cell anemia: codominant alleles |
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Punnett squares are used for what purpose?
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to predict offspring phenotypes
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