Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
14 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
THE EMERGENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE |
What is science? The approach of studying the world through methods of observation and empiricism. 5 Key features: -Control: manipulating/measuring variables to keep EVs at a constant and establish causality -Objectivity: to keep bias/opinions away from the results -Predictability: Statements to be made about future based on research, findings and theory -Falsifiability: the ability to test an hypothesis and is capable of being proved false if it is -Replication: research can be repeated so results can be generalised to different situations Scientific Method: -Observation -Theory -Hypothesis -Experiment; *If hypothesis is wrong -> modify theory *If hypothesis is right-> repeat experiment -Report findings of experiment -Peer review How did psychology appear as a science?: -psychology dates back to 17th century with roots in philosophy -some approaches are unscientific but psychology has key points in it's emergence of scientific principle. 1) EMPIRICISM: - knowledge comes direct from observation -Humans learn from observation not instinct -Empiricism formed on behaviourist approach 2)INTROSPECTION: -Wundt 'first' psychologist -Created a lab in 1879 Germany -investigate human conciousness (thought) into structures (known as structurialism) -Introspection aimed at presenting stimuli and asking pt's to describe their experience -Done under strict controlled conditions and standardised instructions -Wundt's procedures could be replicated 3)SCIENTIFIC METHOD: -the birth of 'beahviourism' in 1880s rejected Wundt's introspection for being too subjective -Emphasis now on studying observable behaviour -Watson believed we should collect info through experiments -Later approaches adopted use of experiments to test their ideas i.e cognitive computer models and biological approach's brain scans |
|
|
BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH (CLASSICAL CONDITIONING) |
Classical Conditioning: -All animals are born with some natural reflexes to some stimuli -when a stimulus is associated with this stimuli and eventually creates the same response is known as classical conditioning. Pavlov (1972): Pavlov realised dogs salivate when they see food. Attempted to classically condition them to salivate to a sound of a bell. Key words: Generalisation: tendency for stimuli similar to CS to create same reflex Discrimination: Having a response to some stimuli but not others Extinction: when CS no longer elicits conditioned response Spontaneous Recovery: reappearance of conditioned response after a period of extinction |
|
|
BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH (OPERANT CONDITIONING) |
Operant Conditioning: Animals produce behaviour spontaneously through trial and error. Consequences of that behaviour determine whether they will repeat it. Pleasant consequence= increase chance of repeating behaviour Negative consequence= decrease chance of repeating behaviour Positive reinforcement= providing something pleasant ie praising a child Negative reinforcement= taking away something unpleasant ie turning an alarm off Positive punishment= providing something unpleasant ie smacking a child Negative punishment= taking away something pleasant ie taking away a child's game console Skinner's Experiment: Rat given food pellet when presses lever. Increases repeating behaviour. When repeats this in second condition it is given an electric shock. Changes behaviour. |
|
|
BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH EVALUATION |
Strengths: It has practical applications: help to remove phobias by removing stimuli linked to phobia. This means behaviourist approach can be used to help benefit people in real life. It is scientific: Uses empirical method. Skinner used controlled conditions. Can establish cause and effect. This means behaviourist approach has established credible and accurate conclusions. Weaknesses: limitations of animal research studies: tell us little about human behaviour. Don't consider human characteristics such as free will. This means it may not identify valid explanations on how humans learn behaviour it is reductionist: doesn't look at complex human behaviour, biological factors or cognitive thoughts. For example they ignore evolution. This means oversimplifies the causes which may be nature AND nurture. |
|
|
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY |
Modelling: observe a person carrying out a behaviour which we learn. *Live models: people we directly connect with i.e teachers or peers *Symbolic models: indirect contact i.e celebrities Models demonstrate examples of behaviour we imitate Imitation: observe model's behaviour and reproduce it, rapid learning More likely to imitate if : -identification with model -able to reflect behaviour -expect positive consequences Identification: reproduce behaviour if we want to be associated with model We must feel similar ie same sex Similarity means likely same consequences/outcomes Vicarious Reinforcement: observing a model receive positive reinforcement for their behaviour Judge likeliness of receiving same consequences in imitation Mediational Processes: internal mental processes form a mental representation of likely outcomes of that behaviour. Individual makes a decision on imitating behaviour. Considers vicarious reinforcement and self-efficacy (own confidence in imitating it). Bandura's research: The findings support Bandura's (1977) Social Learning Theory. That is, children learn social behaviour such as aggression through the process of observation learning - through watching the behaviour of another person.This study has important implications for the effects of media violence on children. -66 kids (33 girls, 33 boys) -one group watched video where boy was praised for hitting bobo doll -one group watched video where boy was punished for hitting doll -Control group just saw boy attack doll -all kids then put in room with doll and weapons - Those who had seen model praised were more aggressive -Boys were more aggressive as saw male model |
|
|
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY EVALUATION |
Strengths: It has practical applications: can help explain criminal behaviour. more likely to commit crime if peers do and are awarded. Also, media can change health related behaviour. Use models who are similar to target audience but resemble healthy characteristics. This means it's used to reduce criminal behaviour and improve health. Not as reductionist as other approaches: takes human freewill and mediational processes into account. This means it is more valid to explain human behaviour. Weaknesses: Lacks ecological validity: Bobo doll experiment is artificial. Children may respond to demand characteristics. This means may not provide how humans learn behaviour in real life. Over estimates nurture: Doesn't take genetics into account or biological factors such as hormones. Boys were more aggressive than girls in bobo doll experiment. Testosterone levels? This means reductionist as likely to be affected by both nurture AND nature. |
|
|
COGNITIVE APPROACH |
Cognitive: studies on what happens in the 'mind' i.e our perception or memory. We make inferences as can't study processes directly. Meaning using observation and logic to draw conclusions. Schemas: mental framework about a concept based on own knowledge/experience and helps organise knowledge. works as a mental shortcut. Help us to make predicitions about what to expect in unfamiliar situations Fill in gaps when trying to remember things Can lead to false memories or stereotyping Allport and Postman (1947): participants shown that picture. Resulted in participants falsely stereotyping the black man as the attacker. Computer Analogy: brain deals with info like a computer : input, processes and output. Cognitive neuroscience: looks at cognitive and biological aspects. Uses neuroimaging ie PET scans look at active parts of brain to explain certain actions Tulving et al: Pet scans show different areas are being used for different LTM: -Frontal lobe = Episodic memory -Temporal = Semantic Memory McGuire et al: Hippocampus of london cab drivers grew after studying for exam (gaining knowledge)- shows our brains are plastic (can change structure). |
|
|
COGNITIVE APPROACH EVALUATION |
Strenghts: Practical applications: Hippocampus of london cab drivers grew after studying for exam (gaining knowledge)- shows our brains are plastic (can change structure). Could lead to helping stroke victimins. This means it helps people's real lives. Scientific: Laboratory experiments which used strandardised procedures. Imaging techniques provide evidence. This means cognitive approach has established credible and accurate conclusions. WEAKNESSES: Lacks ecological validity: research introduces participants to meaningless stimuli in order to test STM. Often asked to recall a crime off of a video - artificial. this means may not provide info on how human minds work in real life scenarios. limitations of computer analogy: oversimplifies human behaviour. Humans have free will and capability to respond to emotions yet computers don't. Also, computers don't really make mistakes. This means it is machine reductionist and oversimplifies human mind. |
|
|
BIOLOGICAL APPROACH |
Focuses on physical structures. Believes behaviour is massively inherited so study genes Study role of chemical changes in the nervous system Brain: split up into different areas. Largest area is cerebrum, split into 2 hemispheres and each has 4 lobes: -Frontal: thought, memory and planning -Temporal: hearing -Parietal: spatial relations and touch -Occipital: Vision Research into frontal lobe of brain: Phineas Gage suffered damage there. it damaged his personality and behaviour. Later neuroscience scans showed same Genes: determine certain characteristics about us. Offspring inherit 50% of parents genes. Genotype= inherited genetic makeup copied into nucleus Phenotype=observable characteristics. Even if we know someone's genotype can't determine phenotype alone. MZ twins share genotype but enviromental factors can intervene and give them different phenotypes Possessing a warrior gene means people are more likely to become a psychopath/killer. However other factors such as upbringing also affect this. Heritability is extent to which behaviour can be attributed to genetics. To look at this we look at concordance rates between family members. Approx 1% of population suffer from schizophrenia. 13% of children with schizophrenic parents have it. 48% of people with twins who have schizophrenia have it. Neurotransmitters affect these disorders. Ie imbalance of dopamine can cause positive symptoms of schizophrenia. Depression can be caused by inbalance of serotonin. Evolution: New genotype emerges from mutation. it increases chance of survival. Which increases reproductive success. Spreads through population by natural selection. However if environment changes they may become maladaptive (useless). David Buss found in 37 cultures people look for same characters in partner. |
|
|
BIOLOGICAL APPROACH EVALUATION |
Strengths: Practical Applications: Serotonin helps to treat people with depression now. This means it helps people in real life. Scientific: highly standardised procedures, clarify findings. Use neuroimaging which is accurate. This means it establishes credible and accurate conclusions. Weaknesses: Determinist: Sees human behaviour as being things that we cant control so people aren't as responsible for their actions. Someone who has a warrior gene and commits a crime gets a lower sentence. This has serious effect on the legal system. Reductionist: Doesn't take into account other factors ie enviromental factors like upbringing. Can't be solely genetics ie only 48% of twins with a schitzophrenic twin also have the disorder. This means both nature AND nurture should be considered. |
|
|
PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH |
The role of the unconcious: the human mind has 3 levels, Conscious (things the mind is aware of), Preconscious (things the mind is not aware of but can be made conscious), Unconscious (things the mind isn't aware of). *Unconscious stores biological drives, thoughts and memories which are repressed (unacceptable/unpleasant). *Biological drives include the Eros drive (Libido) and Thanatos (needs to unconsciously satisfy these drives influence our behaviour and personality).
Structure of Personality: Id: Mass of our inherited biological drives. Only innate part of personalities present from birth. Operates solely on pleasure. It is entirely irrational.
Superego: operates on internalized sense of morality. It punished ego with guilt for any wrongdoing. It is last in psyche to develop (at age 5).
Ego: develops around age 2. It operates on reality principle. It uses logic planning to compromise the Id's demand and Superego's morality to determine an appropriate solution to obtaining pleasure. In some situations the ego is too weak. If id dominates ego it results in psychotic disorders by loss of reality- schizophrenia. If superego dominates leads to neurotic disorders due to guilt - OCD. Defence mechanisms: way for ego to balance id and superego. They're unconscious strategies to prevent anxiety in unpleasant situations. They distort reality. I.e Repression- forces distressing memory into unconcious Denial- refusing to admit to some aspect of reality Displacement- transferring unacceptable behaviour onto substitute target which is acceptable Sublimation- acting out unacceptable behaviour in a way which is acceptable in society Psychosexual stages: *Children develop their sexuality and personality through these 5 stages. *In each stage libido is focused in an erotogenic zone. Child gains organ pleasure from stimulating this zone. There is a conflict child must resolve, unresolved leads to fixation which manifests in certain personality traits in adulthood. Oral stage (Birth to 1 year): Centre of mouth; Satisfaction from putting stuff in mouth i.e. breastfeeding unresolved oral fixation i.e. smoking. Anal stage (1 year to 3 years): Anus; ego creates conflict in real world i.e. potty training (where to defecate): if unresolved leads to anal-expulsive (messy) or anal-inpulsive (clean) personalities. Phallic stage (3 years to 5/6 years): Genitals and masturbarion; child learns difference between male and female and aware of sexuality; Must also resolve Oedipus/Electra complex. if unresolved can lead to gender identity problems leading to vanity and impulsive behaviour. Latency stage (5/6 years to puberty): no zone; child continues development but sexual urges are quiet. Genital stage (puberty to adulthood): genitals; child shakes off old dependencies and learns to naturally deal with opposite sex; if unresolved leads to sexual incompetancy ie homosexuality. Oedipus complex: -during phallic stage libido is targeted on first opposite-sex template (mum) -Conflict arises as boys sexual pleasure wont be satisfied by mother due to father (rival for mothers attentions) -Develops unconcious fear of castration anxiety -comes to identify with father resolving conflict with his gender identity. Little Hans (1909): Through correspondence with "han's" father Freud learnt: *he has a phobia of horses and was scared of going out in fear of being bitten. *developed phobia of being denied access to parents bed. *he touched himself and asked mother to *parents threatened to cut penis off *dreams of getting a bigger penis "Like daddy" * had no phobia after such dreams Freud said he had an Oedipus Complex. |
|
|
EVALUATION OF PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH |
Strengths: Practical applications: developed psychotherapy which assumes mental illness is caused by repression. It involves hypnosis and dream interpretation (83% improved in their symptoms after therapy). Supporting evidence: Harris and Campbell's study on pregnant women shows the unconscious motivates behaviour. (Women with unplanned pregnancies had more secondary benefits). Weaknesses: Supporting evidence is unscientific: Case studies only focus on one individual case so aren't representative. Many concepts can't be observed i.e. the unconscious meaning they can't be falsified. Deterministic: Freud claimed we have no control over behaviour it is but motivated by things. He believed things weren't mistakes but instead hidden meanings. This is known as psychic determinism and suggests free will is an illusion. |
|
|
THE HUMANISTIC APPROACH |
This approach disagrees with key ideas of the psychodynamic approach. Psychodynamic: Its deterministic (ignores free will), shouldn't focus focus entirely on early childhood or the unconscious.
Free will & unique human experiences: humans are self determined and have free will. This approach recognises everyone is unique and believes the present should be considered. External forces can affect behaviour but we have the power to reject them. Fully functioning person: a fully functioningp person must ; Be open to experience (accepting negative AND positive emotions), existential living (in touch with different life experiences), Trust feelings (feelings, instincts and gut reactions paid attention to), Creativity (creative thinking and risk taking) and fulfilled life (happiness and satisfaction felt when new experiences and challenges are solved). Conditions of worth: Unconditional positive regard: type of love where they love each other despite any flaws. In childhood this comes from parents which is essential in developing a well-adjusted adult. Problems arise when children aren't given this "I will love you if..." Self worth: person feels confident and positive in themself, faces challenges and accepts failure and happiness. Self concept and incongruence: persons idea of self must be close to their ideal self if not this may prevent personal growth. Hierarchy of needs: humans are always in a state of wanting things and must work through their desires to become a self-actualizer. Higher get up the hierachy harder needs are to achieve. Physiological, safety, love, esteem and self actualisation. Characteristics of self-Actualisers: only 2% of people are this. This is ths point where you havs gained all your desires in the hierachy of needs. They are fulfilled in life and utilise their ability to the fullest and view life in a series of peak experiences. |
|
|
EVALUATION OF HUMANISTIC APPROACH |
Strengths: Hollistic approach: it considers subjective experiences of the "whole person" and consider how the mind and body work together. This contrasts the psychodynamic approach. Developed modern therapy: person centred therapy where clients control their recovery. It increases self worth and lowers incongruency. The client accepts their problems. Weaknesses: Lacks empirical device: they reject the experimental method and many concepts are vague, abstract and difficult to test ie self actualization. Culturally biased: key concepts such as personal growth and self esteem are only important I'm individualistic cultures. Collectiyst cultures don't place importance on it. |
