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72 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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What three zones can the Asian sea trading network be broken down into? |
An Arab zone, an Indian zone, and a China zone. |
"In general, the Asian sea trading network can be broken down into three main zones, each of which was focused on major centers of handicraft manufacture. In the west was an Arab zone...India, with its superb cotton textiles, dominated the central portions of the system. China...formed the eastern pole." (pg. 523) |
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What product had the highest demand and the highest prices? |
Spices |
"Of the raw materials circulating in the system, the broadest demand and highest prices were paid for spices, which came mainly from Ceylon and the islands at the eastern end of what is today the Indonesian archipelago." (pg. 523) |
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How were the Asian trading networks affected by the environment? |
The monsoon winds made the coasting variety of navigation popular in the trading network. |
"Since ancient times, monsoon winds and the nature of the ships and navigational instruments available to sailors had dictated the main trade routes in the Asian network. Much navigation was of the coasting variety, that is, sailing along the shoreline and charting distances and location with reference to towns and natural landmarks." (pg.524) |
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What two characteristics of the Asian trading system were critical to European attempts to regulate and dominate it? |
1. There was no central control. 2. Military force was absent from commercial exchanges. |
"Two general characteristics of the trading system at the time of the Portuguese arrival were critical to European attempts to regulate and dominate it. First, there was no central control. Second, military force was usually absent from commercial exchanges within it." (pg. 524) |
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Why would an import of bullion into the Asian trade not be beneficial to the Portuguese? |
The mercantilists economic theory that the trade network thrived in believed that one's power depended on the precious metals the monarch owns. Thus, the import would strengthen the empires. |
"In an age in which prominent economic theorists, called mercantilists, taught that a state's power depended heavily on the amount of pricious metals a monarch had in his coffers, a steady flow of bullion to Asia was unthinkable." (pg. 524) |
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Who position did the Portuguese want to undermine? |
The Muslims |
"It was particulary objectionable because it would enrich and thus strengthen merchants and rulers from rival kingdoms and religions, including the Muslims, whose positions the Portuguese had set out to undermine through their overseas enterprises." (pg. 524) |
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Why did the Portuguese believe that they would be successful in taking Asian goods by force rather than trade? |
Their ships were far superior in quality than the Asian ships. |
"The decision by the Portuguese to use force to extract spices and other goods from Asia resulted largely from their realization that they could offset their lack of numbers and trading goods with their superior ships and weaponry. Except for the huge war fleets of Chinese junks, no Asian people could muster fleets able to withstand the firepower and maneuverability of the Portuguese squadrons." (pg. 524) |
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What allowed the Portuguese forces to take advantage of the divisions that separated their Asian competitors and the Asians' inability to combine their forces effectively in battle? |
There united drive towards wealth and religious converts. |
"The Portuguese forces were small in numbers but united at least in the early years after 1498 in their drive for wealth and religious converts. This allowed them to take advantage of the divisions that often separated their Asian competitors and the Asians' inability to combine their forces effectively in battle." (pg. 524) |
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What was the problem with the Portuguese coastal control of the Asian trade network? |
The coastal towns were not sufficient to control the trade items that they wanted, like spices. |
"The Portuguese soon found that sea patrols and raids on coastal towns were not sufficient to control the trade in the items they wanted, especially spices." (pg. 524) |
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What was the aim of the Portuguese empire in terms of the Asian trade network? |
To establish Portuguese control over key Asian products, particularly spices, through a monopoly and a licensing system. |
"The combination of monopoly and the licensing system, backed by force, was intended to give the Portuguese control of a sizable portion of the Asian trading network." (pg. 525) |
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Why were the Portuguese not successful in establishing a monopoly in the Asian trade network? |
They did not have the soldiers or ships needed to sustain their monopolies. |
"But they simply did not have the soldiers or the ships to sustain their monopolies, much less the licensing system. The resistance of Asian rivals, poor military discipline, rampant corruption among crown officials, and heavy Portuguese shipping losses caused by overloading and poor design had taken a heavy toll on the empire by the end of the 16th century." (pg. 525-526) |
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Who pushed the English back into India? |
The Dutch |
"It was also the consequence of the Dutch decision to concentrate on the monopoly control of the certain spices rather than on Asian trade more generally. The English, who fought hard but lost the struggle for control of the Spice Islands, were forced to fall back into India." (pg. 526) |
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What was different about the Dutch trading empire than the Portuguese? |
They had more numerous, better armed ships and were more systematic in their monopoly control. |
"But the Dutch had more numerous and better armed ships and went about the business of monopoly control in a much more systematic fashion." (pg. 526) |
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What did the Dutch eventually rely on for their profits in the Asian trading empire? |
The fees charged for transporting objects. |
"The demand for spices declined and their futile efforts to gain control over crops such as pepper that were grown in many places became more and more expensive. In response, the Dutch came to rely mainly (as they had long done in Europe) on the fees they charged for transporting products from one area in Asia to another." (pg. 526) |
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How were the Asian kingdoms able to resist the Europeans on land? |
They had superior numbers to offset the European advantages in technology. |
"Because the vastly superior numbers of Asian armies offset the Europeans' advantage in weapons and organization for waging war on land, even small kingdoms such as those on Java and in mainland southeast Asia were able to resist European inroads into their domains." (pg. 526) |
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Why did the Portuguese and the Dutch feel compelled to conquer the coastal areas of Ceylon? |
To control the production and sale of cinnamon. |
"The Portuguese, and the Dutch after them, felt compelled to conquer the coastal areas of Ceylon to control the production and sale of cinnamon, which grew in the forests of the southwest portions of that island." (pg. 527) |
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What did the Dutch discover in the highlands of western Java? |
An ideal area for growing coffee, which made them the paramount power on Java. |
"The Dutch moved slowly inland from their base at Batvia into the highlands of western Java. They discovered that this area was ideal for growing coffee, which was in great demand in Europe by the 17th century." (pg. 527) |
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What kingdom drastically underscores the limits of the Europeans' ability to project their power on the land? |
Mindanao, a Muslim kingdom. |
"The repeated failure of Spanish expeditions to conquer the southern island of Mindanao, which was ruled by a single kingdom whose Muslim rulers were determined to resist Christian dominance, dramatically underscores the limits of the Europeans' ability to project their power on land in this era." (pg. 527) |
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What occurred in every area where the Europeans went ashore in the early centuries of expansion? |
Tribute regimes like the Spanish ones in the New World. |
"In each area where the Europeans went ashore in the early centuries of expansion, they set up tribute regimes that closely resembled those the Spanish imposed on the Native American peoples of the New World." (pg. 528). |
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What was taken into account with the demands for tribute from the Europeans? |
The local peasants' need to raise the crops on which they subsisted. |
"But in all cases, the demands for tribute took into account the local peasants' need to raise the crops on which they subsisted." (pg. 528) |
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What groups were not interested in winning converts to Christianity during the early centuries of overseas expansion? Which groups were? |
The Dutch and English were not interested in missionary work, while the Portuguese and Spanish were. |
"Although the Protestant Dutch and English were little interested in winning converts to Christianity during the early centuries of overseas expansion, the spread of Roman Catholicism was a fundamental part of the global mission of the Portuguese and Spanish." (pg. 528) |
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What was a big factor of the open hostility the Portuguese met when they tried to convert the native Asians to Christianity? |
Islam's spread over much of Asia centuries before Da Gama's arrival. |
"The fact that Islam had spread over much of maritime south and southeast Asia centuries before Da Gama's arrival had much to do with the indifference or open hostility the Portuguese met when they tried to convert the peoples of these regions to Christianity." (pg. 528) |
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What was considered one of the most promising fields for religious conversion for the Europeans? |
India |
"Despite these obstacles, of all the Asian areas where European enclaves were established in the early centuries of expansion, India appeared to be one of the most promising fields for religious conversion." (pg. 528) |
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What was Robert di Nobili's method for high-caste Indian conversion to Christianity? |
He learned the teachings of their religion and society and used them to gain influence in society, providing opportunities to convert higher class people in India. |
"To overcome these obstacles, and Italian Jesuit named Robert di Nobili devised a different conversion strategy in the early 1600s. He learned several Indian languages, including Sanskrit, which allowed him to read the sacred texts of the Hindus. He donned the garments worn by Indian brahmans and adopted a vegetarian diet. All these measures were calculated to win over the upper-caste Hindus in south India, where he was based." (pg. 528) |
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What undone Nobili's strategy of conversion? |
The refusal for high-caste Hindu converts to worship with lower-caste groups and to give up many traditional beliefs and rituals. |
"Despite some early successes, di Nobili's strategy was undone by the refusal of high-caste Hindu converts to worship with low-caste groups and to give up many of their traditional beliefs and religious rituals." (pg. 528) |
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Where was the greatest successes of Christian missions? Why? |
The northern islands of the Philippines, since they hadn't been previously exposed to Islam or Buddhism. |
"Perhaps the greatest successes of the Christian missions occurred in the northern islands of the Philippines, which had not previously been exposed to a world religion such as Islam or Buddhism." (pg. 528) |
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What did the Filipinos' brand of Christianity represent? |
A creative blend of their traditions & the friars religion. |
"Like the Native Americans of Spain's New World empire, most Filipinos were formally converted to Catholicism. But also like the Native Americans, the Filipinos' brand of Christianity represented a creative blend of their traditional beliefs and customs and the religion preached by the friars." (pg. 529) |
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What traditional ways did the Filipinos not fully convert to Christian influence? |
They clung to public bathing, ritual drinking, and ancestral worship. |
"The peoples of the islands continued public bathing, which the missionaries condemned as immodest, and refused to give up ritual drinking. They also continued to commune with deceased members of their families, often in sessions that were disguised as public recitations of the rosary." (pg. 529) |
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Who's suffering from the Mongols was turned into motivation to eventually drive out the Mongol rulers and become the first emperor of the Ming dynasty. |
Zhu Yuanzhang (Hongwu) |
"Zhu Yuanzhang, a military commander of peasant origins who founded the Ming dynasty, had suffered a great deal under the Mongol yoke...Zhu left the monastery to join a rebel band. His courage in combat and his natural capacity as a leader soon made him one of the more prominent of several rebel warlords attempting to overthrow the Yuan dynasty...Zhu's armies conquered most of China. Zhu declared himself the Hongwu emperor in 1368." (pg. 529) |
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Who was appointed to the highest positions of the imperial government during the Ming dynasty? |
Scholars well-versed in the Confucian classics. |
"Because the Hongwu emperor, like the founder of the earlier Han dynasty, was from a peasant family and thus poorly educated, he viewed the scholar-gentry with some suspicion. But he also realized that their cooperation was essential to the full revival of Chinese civilization. Scholars well versed in the Confucian classics were again appointed to the very highest positions in the imperial government." (pg. 529) |
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How was the examination system changed from before the Ming dynasty to the Ming dynasty? |
It was more routinized and made more complex. |
"In the Ming era, the examination system was routinized and made more complex than before." (pg. 530) |
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What had Hongwu abolished in order to put limits on the influence of the scholars in the Ming dynasty? |
He abolished the position of chief minister. |
"Early in his reign, Hongwu abolished the position of chief minister, which had formerly been the key link between the many ministries of the central government. The powers that had been amassed by those who occupied this office were transferred to the emperor." (pg. 530) |
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How did Hongwu discipline his officials? |
Through public beatings for guilty bureaucrats. |
"Hongwu also tried to impress all officials with the honest, loyalty, and discipline he expected from them by introducing the practice of public beating for bureaucrats found guilty of corruption or incompetence." (pg. 530) |
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What was the purpose Hongwu's decree on humble family origin wives? |
To avoid the power plays of the consorts from high-ranking families. |
"He decreed that the emperor's wives should come only from humble family origins. This was intended to put an end to the power plays of the consorts from high-ranking families, who built palace cliques that were centered on their influential aristocratic relatives." (pg. 531) |
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How did Hongwu prevent plots against him and fights for succession? |
He exiled all potential rivals to estates in the provinces and forbade them to become involved in political affairs. |
"To prevent plots against the ruler and fights over succession, Hongwu established the practice of exiling all potential rivals to the throne to estates in the provinces, and he forbade them to become involved in political affairs." (pg. 531) |
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What measures did Hongwu introduce to improve the common people? |
He promoted public works projects, like dike buildings and irrigation system. |
"Hongwu introduced measures that would improve the lot of the common people. Like most strong emperors, he promoted public works projects, including dike building and the extension of irrigation systems aimed at improving the farmers' yields." (pg. 531) |
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What offset the short-term improvement in the peasants' condition? |
The growing power of rural landlord families. |
"Although these measures led to some short-term improvement in the peasants' condition, they were all but offset by the growing power of rural landlord families, buttressed by alliances with relatives in the imperial bureaucracy." (pg. 532) |
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How did the scholar gentry justify the gap between the wealth and the poverty of the peasantry? |
By contrasting their foresight and industry with the lazy and wasteful ways of the ordinary farmers. |
"More land meant even larger and more comfortable households for the scholar-gentry class. They justified the growing gap between their wealth and the poverty of the peasantry by contrasting their foresight and industry with the lazy and wasteful ways of the ordinary farmers." (pg. 532) |
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What idea became more influential in the Ming dynasty that was stronger than the earlier Song and Yuan dynasties? |
Neo-Confucianism |
"At most levels of Chinese society, the Ming period continued to subordination of youths to elders and women to men that had been steadily intensifying in earlier periods. If anything, Neo-Confucian thinking was even more influential than under the late Song and Yuan dynasties." (pg. 532) |
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Why were women in the Ming dynasty driven to underground activities? |
To ameliorate their subordination and expand their career opportunities. |
"Women were also driven to underground activities to ameliorate their subordination and, if they dared, expand their career opportunities." (pg. 532) |
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What did the success of women mainly hinge on? |
Their ability to bear male children. |
"In society at large, women had to settle for whatever status and respect they could win within the family. As before, their success in this regard hinged largely on bearing male children and, when these children were married, moving from the status of daughter-in-law to mother-in-law." (pg. 532) |
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What fed and resulted in the buoyant economic growth in the first decades of the Ming period? |
Unprecedented contacts with other oversea civilizations. |
"The first decades of the Ming period were an age of buoyant economic growth in China that both was fed by and resulted in unprecedented contacts with other civilizations overseas." (pg. 533) |
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What three crops became vital supplements to the staple rice or millet diet of the Chinese people during the Ming period? |
Maize (corn), sweet potatoes, and peanuts |
"Three plants-maize (corn), sweet potatoes, and peanuts-were especially important. Because these crops could be grown on inferior soils without irrigation, their cultivation spread quickly through the hilly and marginal areas that bordered on the irrigated rice lands of southern China. They became vital supplements to the staple rice or millet diet of the Chinese people, particularly those of the rapidly growing southern regions." (pg. 533) |
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What paralleled Agrarian expansion and population increase in early Ming times? |
A renewal of commercial growth. |
"Agrarian expansion and population increase were paralleled in early Ming times by a renewal of commercial growth. The market sector of the domestic economy became ever more pervasive, and overseas trading links multiplied." (pg. 533) |
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What did much of the merchant's wealth in the Ming period get invested in? |
Land |
"Much of the merchants' wealth was invested in land rather than plowed back into trade or manufacturing because land owning, not commerce, remained the surest route to social status in China." (pg. 534) |
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What reflected Ming prosperity? |
Their fine arts. |
"Ming prosperity was reflected in the fine arts, which found generous patrons both at court and among the scholar-gentry class generally. Although the monochromatic simplicity of the work of earlier dynasties was sustained by the ink brush paintings of artists such as Xu Wei, much of the Ming output was busier and more colorful." (pg. 534) |
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What major innovation was made during the Ming dynasty in terms of literature? |
The development of the Chinese novel. |
"Whereas the painter of the Ming era concentrated mainly on developing established techniques and genres, major innovation was occurring in literature. Most notable in this regard was the full development of the Chinese novel, which had had its beginnings in the writings of the Yuan era." (pg. 534) |
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What motives promoted Zheng He's voyages? |
A desire to explore and to proclaim the glory of the Ming empire. |
"Between 1405 and 1433, the admiral Zheng He, one of Yongle's most trusted subordinates, led seven major expeditions overseas. A mix of motives, including a desire to explore other lands and proclaim the glory of the Ming empire to the wider world, prompted the voyages." (pg. 534) |
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What did China's rulers strive for when they abandoned the drive to extend Ming power? |
To limit and control contacts with the outside world. |
"Nonetheless, in the decades after the last of the Zheng He expeditions in 1433, China's rulers purposely abandoned the drive to extend Ming power and prestige overseas, and increasingly sought to limit and control contacts with the outside world." (pg. 534) |
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Why was the Indian Ocean world as a whole vulnerable to European incursions by sea? |
The Ming war fleet declined from the shift to focus on nomadic invaders. |
"In the centuries that followed the suspension of overseas expeditions, the Ming war fleet declined dramatically in the number and quality of its ships, and strict limits were placed on the size and number of masts with which a seagoing ship might be fitted. This return to the long-standing priority of defending against nomadic invasions eventually left China, and the Indian Ocean world as a whole, vulnerable to European incursions by sea." (pg.534) |
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Who became the prime targets for the missionary effort in China? |
The rulers and their chief advisors. |
"In China, however, a single person, the Ming emperor, instead of a whole caste, sat at the top of the social hierarchy, and for that reason the rulers and their chief advisors became the prime targets of the Jesuit mission." (pg. 535) |
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What were the keys for a Jesuit to maintain a presence at the Ming court? |
Their scientific knowledge and technical skills. |
"But the Jesuit missionaries who made their way to Beijing clearly recognized that their scientific knowledge and technical skills were the keys to maintaining a presence at the Ming court and eventually interesting the Chinese elite in Christianity." (pg. 535) |
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What was the critical issue with Chinese converts to Christianity? |
Whether they should continue ancestral worship. |
"The critical issue was whether Chinese converts should be allowed to continue the ancestral rites that we have seen were central to Chinese family life since ancient times." (pg. 535) |
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What eventually eroded the foundation on which the Ming empire was built? |
The decades of rampant official corruption, combined with the growing isolation of weak rulers. |
"Decades of rampant official corruption, exacerbated by the growing isolation of weak rulers by the thousands of eunuchs who gradually came to dominate life within the Forbidden City, eventually eroded the foundations on which the empire was built." (pg. 535) |
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What natural disasters ravage the land during the Ming decline? |
Floods, drought, and famine. |
"Public work projects, including the critical dike works on the Yellow River, fell into disrepair, and floods, drought, and famine soon ravaged the land. Peasants in afflicted districts were reduced to eating the bark from trees or the excrement of wild geese." (pg. 536) |
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What was one of the early signs of the seriousness of the Ming imperial deterioration? |
The inability of Chinese bureaucrats & military forces to put an end to the Japanese pirate attacks. |
"One of the early signs of the seriousness of imperial deterioration was the inability of Chinese bureaucrats and military forces to put an end to the epidemic of Japanese (and ethic Chinese) pirate attacks that ravaged the southern coast in the mid-16th century." (pg. 538) |
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Who toppled the Ming dynasty? |
The rebels within. |
"Despite an official preoccupation with the Mongols early in finally toppled in 1644, not by nomads but by rebels from within." (pg. 538) |
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What vaulted Oda Nobunaga into prominence in the power struggle among daimyos? |
His skills as a military leader. |
"Oda Nobunaga, the first of these leaders, was from a minor samurai household. But his skills as a military leader soon vaulted him into prominence in the ongoing struggles for power among the daimyo or regional lords." (pg. 538) |
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What did Nobunaga do that no samurai leader had done before him? |
Make extensive use of firearms. |
"He was not afraid to launch a surprise attack against an enemy that outnumbered him ten to one, and he was one of the first of the samurai leaders to make extensive use of the firearms that the Japanese had begun to acquire from the Portuguese in the 1540s." (pg. 538). |
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What shoguns had Nobunaga deposed the last of? |
The Ashikaga shoguns. |
"In 1573 Nobunaga deposed the last of the Ashikaga shoguns, who had long ruled in name only." (pg. 538) |
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Who took on the role of the leading military power in Japan after Nobunaga's death? |
Toyotomi Hideyoshi. |
"But his ablest general, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, moved quickly to punish those who had betrayed Nobunaga and to renew the drive to break the power of the daimyo who had not yet submitted to him." (pg. 539) |
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What was the first step of Hideyoshi's plans for his wide conquest? Did it succeed? |
Attacks on Korea. No, the first attack ended in defeat while the second was still in progress when Hideyoshi died. |
"Apparently as the first step toward fulfilling this vision of empire building on a grand scale, Hideyoshi launched two attacks on Korea in 1592 and 1597, each of which involved nearly 150,000 soldiers. After initial successes, both campaigns stalled. The first ended in defeat; the second was still in progress when Hideyoshi died in 1598." (pg. 539) |
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Who came after Hideyoshi? Was it who he initially intended? |
Tokugawa Ieyasu, a vassal, became the next leader after the struggle for power between the vassals, which was not intended by Hideyoshi. |
"Although Hideyoshi had tried to ensure that he would be succeeded by his son, the vassals he had appointed to carry out his wishes tried to seize power for themselves after his death. One of these vassals, Tokugawa Ieyasu, had originally come from a minor daimyo house. But as an ally of Hideyoshi, he had been able to build up a powerful domain on the heavily populated Kanto plain. Ieyasu soon emerged triumphant from the renewed warfare that resulted from Hideyoshi's death." (pg. 539) |
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What did Tokugawas' victory bring to the Japanese islands? |
A semblance of political unity and an end to the civil wars. |
"It was soon clear that the Tokugawas' victory had put an end to the civil wars and brought a semblance of political unity to the islands." (pg. 540) |
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What was the capital city of the Tokugawa shogunate? |
Edo. |
"To ensure their continuing loyalty, the shogun compelled them to spend half of the year in the capital city at Edo." (pg. 539) |
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What force did the three Japanese unifiers had to deal with? |
The Europeans. |
"All through the decades when the three unifiers were struggling to bring the feisty daimyo under control, they also had to contend with a new force in Japanese history; the Europeans." (pg. 540) |
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Why did Nobunaga encourage the European missionaries to preach their faith to the people? |
He saw them as a counterforce to the militant Buddhist orders that were resisting his rise to power. |
"Seeing Christianity as a counterforce to the militant Buddhist orders that were resisting his rise to power, Nobunaga took the missionaries under his protection and encouraged them to preach their faith to his people." (pg. 540) |
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What did the fall of favor for the Jesuit missionaries come from? |
The resistance from Buddhist sects. have been crushed and reports told Hideyoshi that converts are resisting their overlords' commands because of their new faith. |
"In part, the missionaries' fall from favor resulted from the fact that the resistance of the Buddhist sects had been crushed. More critically, Hideyoshi and his followers were alarmed by reports of converts refusing to obey their overlords' commands when they believed them to be in conflict with their newly adopted Christian beliefs." (pg. 540) |
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What led to the restriction of foreign activities in Japan? |
Doubts about European intentions and fears that both merchants and missionaries might subvert the existing social order. |
"Growing doubts about European intentions, and fears that both merchants and missionaries might subvert the existing social order, led to official measures to restrict foreign activities in Japan, beginning in the late 1580s." (pg. 540) |
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What had Christianity been reduced to in Japan from the new restrictions by Ieyasu? |
An underground faith of isolated communities. |
"With the suppression of these uprisings, Christianity in Japan was reduced to an underground faith of isolated communities." (pg. 541). |
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On what island were the Dutch traders confined to if they wanted to trade with Japan? |
Deshima |
"By the 1640s only a limited number of Dutch and Chinese ships were allowed to carry on commerce in Japan and only at the port of Nagasaki. To prevent the spread of Christianity, Dutch traders were confined to a small island called Deshima, in Nagasaki Bay." (pg. 541) |
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What did the new ideology of the School of National Learning lay great emphasis on? |
Japan's unique historical experience and the revival of indigenous culture at the expense of Chinese imports. |
"In the 18th century, a revival of Neo-Confucian philosophy, which had marked the period of the Tokugawa's rise to power, increasingly gave way to the influence of thinkers who championed the School of National Learning. As its name implies, the new ideology laid great emphasis on Japan's unique historical experience and the revival of indigenous culture at the expense of Chinese imports such as Confucianism." (pg. 542) |
