Animal Phys Exam 3 (Final)

Front 1

Long Bone (parts)

Back 1

1. Epiphysis
2. Metaphysis
3. Articular

Front 2

Epiphysis

Back 2

-refers to either end of a long bone
-rounded end of a long bone

Front 3

Metaphysis

Back 3

-flare ends of the shaft (diaphysis)

Front 4

Diaphysis

Back 4

-shaft of the long bone between the two ephysises

Front 5

Articular

Back 5

-joint end of a long bone
-thin layer of hyaline cartilage that covers the joint surface of a long bone

Front 6

Compact Bone

Back 6

-hard layer that forms almost the entire shaft of a long bone
-outside of bone by the cortex

Front 7

Cancellous (spongy) Bone

Back 7

-composed of spicules that forms a porous network (trabeculae)
-spaces are usually filled with marrow

Front 8

What are the 3 kinds of bone cells?

Back 8

-osteoblasts
-osteocytes
-osteoclasts

Front 9

Osteoblast (bone producing cells)

Back 9

-involved in bone formation
-responsible for increases in the diameter of bones
-sit under the periosteum and endosteum

Front 10

Osteocytes

Back 10

-captured osteoblasts
-located in the lacunae
-mostly dormant unless there's a fracture
-connected to central canal through canaliculi

Front 11

Osteoclast (bone destroying cells)

Back 11

-located underneath endosteum
-involved in digesting bone by releasing organic acid and enzymes and demineralize the bone
-chewers (from formed macrophages)

Front 12

Periosteum

Back 12

-fibrous membrane that covers the surface of a bone except where cartilage is located
-connective tissue on the outer edge of compact bone

Front 13

Endosteum

Back 13

-fibrous membrane that lines the marrow cavity
-connective tissue on the inside of compact bone

Front 14

Long Bone (example + function)

Back 14

-femur
-locomotion

Front 15

Short Bone

Back 15

-cuboidal shaped bones
-have several medullary cavities

Front 16

Short Bone (example + function)

Back 16

-carpus/tarsus
-cushions complex joints/absorb concussion

Front 17

Flat Bone

Back 17

-thin and expanded in two dimensions
-consists of two plates of compact bone - lamina externa + lamina interna
-separated by spongy material called diploe

Front 18

Flat Bone (example + function)

Back 18

-parietal bone of skull, scapula, ribs, pelvis
-protection, hemopoeisis

Front 19

Sesamoid Bone

Back 19

-bones that have a sesame seed shape

Front 20

Sesamoid Bone (example + function)

Back 20

-patella
-change or alter the direction of tendons and ligaments
-reduce friction

Front 21

Pneumatic Bones

Back 21

-bones that have air spaces in them

Front 22

Pneumatic Bones (example + function)

Back 22

-frontal bone
-keeps the skull light weight

Front 23

Irregular Bones (example + function)

Back 23

-vertebrae
-muscle attachment, protection of spinal cord

Front 24

Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)

Back 24

-large protein that sticks out from osteocytes
-has sugars stuck to it
-calcium + phosphorous stick to this creating a hard mineralized part of bone
-contain chondroitin sulfate
-give resilience and toughness to bones

Front 25

Lacunae (little lakes)

Back 25

-small cavities in the bone where osteocytes are found

Front 26

Canaliculi

Back 26

-small capillaries that transmit tissue fluid that is essential for maintaining the life of osteocytes

Front 27

Trabeculae

Back 27

-network of fingerlike bony spicules in cancellous bone

Front 28

Osteonal Systems (Haversian)

Back 28

-consists of many laminated tubes

Front 29

Osteon

Back 29

-consists of one central canal containing vessels, and nerves surrounded by circular plates of bone

Front 30

What are the 3 types of ossification?

Back 30

1. Endochondral (Intracartilaginous)
2. Intramembranous
3. Heteroplastic

Front 31

Endochondral (intracartilaginous) Ossification

Back 31

-cartilage that is gradually replaced by bone
-example: epiphyseal growth plate

Front 32

Intramembranous Ossification

Back 32

-flat bone growth
-active osteoblasts under periosteum that continue to get thicker + thicker
-osteoid tissue calcifies to form true bone

Front 33

Heteroplastic

Back 33

-formation of bone-like material outside of the skeletal system

Front 34

Examples of Heteroplastic Ossification

Back 34

1. kidney stones
2. Os penis/Os clitoris
3. Os Cordis

Front 35

Bone formation hormones

Back 35

1. Growth hormone
2. Androgens + Estrogen
3. Calcitonin
4. Insulin

Front 36

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)

Back 36

-released when body is low in calcium
-causes bone to break down
-stimulates osteoclasts
-increases serum calcium by increasing the net release of calcium salts from bone

Front 37

Calcitonin

Back 37

-reduces osteoclast activity
-released when calcium is too high
-stimulates osteoblasts
-tends to lower serum calcium

Front 38

Osteomalacia

Back 38

-rickets in young animals
-decrease in bone mass due to a lack of vitamin D

Front 39

Osteoporosis

Back 39

-decrease in bone mass
-significant to people as they age

Front 40

Simple Fracture

Back 40

-skin over the fracture site it unbroken

Front 41

Open Fracture

Back 41

-a wound from the exterior contacts the bone at the point of the fracture
-example: bone perforating the skin, or penetrating object such as a bullet

Front 42

Greenstick Fracture

Back 42

-when one side of the bone is broken or splintered and the other side only bent
-typically found in long young animal bones

Front 43

Complete Fracture

Back 43

-bone is broken entirely across

Front 44

Physeal Fracture

Back 44

-occurs at the junction of an epiphysis and diaphysis
-example: ephiphyseal (growth plate) fracture, riding too young of a horse

Front 45

Comminuted Fracture

Back 45

-bone is splintered or crushed producing small fragments

Front 46

What are the kidneys 3 functions?

Back 46

1. excretory
2. regulatory
3. endocrine

Front 47

Hilus

Back 47

-medial aspect of each kidney
-concavity
-arteries and nerves enter here
-ureter, veins, and lymphatic vessels leave

Front 48

Capsule

Back 48

-tough outer covering of the kidney

Front 49

Cortex

Back 49

-tubular part of nephron

Front 50

Medulla

Back 50

-tube part of nephron

Front 51

Renal Pelvis

Back 51

-innermost part
-receives urine from collecting tubules, flows into ureter

Front 52

Nephron

Back 52

-basic functional repeating unit of the kidney

Front 53

What are the parts of a nephron?

Back 53

1. Bowman's capsule
2. Proximal convoluted tubule
3. Loope of Henle
4. Distal Convoluted Tubule
5. Collecting Duct

Front 54

What is the Bowman's Capsule's function?

Back 54

-filtration

Front 55

Bowman's Capsule

Back 55

-spherical structure
-surrounds the glomerulus
-epithelia wall
-consists of 2 visceral layers

Front 56

Podocytes

Back 56

-cells of the inner (visceral) layer of Bowman's Capsule

Front 57

What three processes are involved in urine formation?

Back 57

1. glomerular filtration
2. selective tubular reabsorption
3. selective tubular secretion

Front 58

Tubular reabsorption

Back 58

-removal of substances from the tubular fluid by the tubular cells

Front 59

Tubular Secretion

Back 59

-the addition of substances to the tubular fluid

Front 60

Juxtaglomerular cells (JG cells)

Back 60

-specialized cells that surround the afferent and efferent arteries

Front 61

Juxtaglomerular Apparatus

Back 61

-consists of JG cells/macula densa

Front 62

Macula Densa

Back 62

-specific region of the wall of the DCT where cellular nuclei appear to be bunched closely together

Front 63

What 3 physical barriers does the filtrate pass through?

Back 63

1. the capillary endothelium of the glomerulus
2. the inner layer of Bowman's capsule
3. a basement membrane (lamina)

Front 64

Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)

Back 64

-longest of the tubules
-makes up most of the renal cortex
-solutes and water get reabsorbed back into the blood here (60-80% water leaves the PCT)
-some things secreted and taken out of blood
-lies close to peritubular capillary bed
-ends at the Loop of Henle
-at end 100% of sugar, amino acids, chlorine, and bicarbonate back into the blood

Front 65

Loops of Henle

Back 65

-nephron segments found in the renal medulla
-U shaped loops extend to variable depths in the medulla
-termed "ascending" and "descending" to different parts of the loops

Front 66

Ascending limbs of loops of Henle

Back 66

-relatively impermeable to water
-have a thick portion that is the site of a great deal of sodium + chloride reabsorption

Front 67

Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)

Back 67

-continuation of the thick part of the ascending loop of Henle
-continues to let sodium + water come out
-controlled by aldosterone

Front 68

Aldosterone

Back 68

-hormone that controls the salt coming out of urine
-from adrenal cortex
-called a "mineral corticoid"
-acts on the DCT and collecting duct

Front 69

What are the 3 primary physiological effects of aldosterone?

Back 69

1. increase reabsorption of sodium
2. increase reabsorption of water
3. increase renal excretion of potassium

Front 70

Adrenal Glands

Back 70

-consists of two parts:
1. cortex (part of hormone system)
2. medulla (part of the nervous system)
-cortex has 3 different zonas

Front 71

Zona glomerulosa

Back 71

-responds to angiotensin II and aldosterone

-secretes mineralcorticoids

Front 72

Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone System (RAAS)

Back 72

-angiotensin activation

Front 73

Pancreas

Back 73

-domestic animals have bilobed pancreas
-important exocrine gland whose enzymatic secretions are delivered to the lumen of the duodenum by one or two ducts
-humans lack distinct left and right lobe

Front 74

Pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans)

Back 74

-makes hormones and secrete it into the blood
-clumps of pale staining cells
-specials stains are used to demonstrate the types of epithelial cells found here

Front 75

Glucagon

Back 75

-produced by alpha cells
-sugar drive hormone
-released when sugar levels are low causing them to go up

Front 76

Insulin

Back 76

-produced by beta cells
-works to bring sugar back down
-receptors for insulin allow sugar to bind + get into the cell (causes sugar to go down)

Front 77

Thyroid Gland

Back 77

-sits in the base of neck, looks like a butterfly
-has left + right lobe (isthmus connects the two)
-consists of follicles (makes and secretes T3 + T4)
-lined by a single layer of cells that have fluid inside of them
-where iodine is concentrated/localized

Front 78

Thyroglobulin

Back 78

-protein iodine complex found in the colloid

Front 79

T3 + T4

Back 79

-stored in the colloid as iodinated tyrosine residues that are part of thyroglobulin molecules

Front 80

Aldosterone

Back 80

-steroid (mineral corticoid)
-made in the adrenal glands (zona glomerulosa of the adrenal cortex)
-turns on sodium pump in the DCT (increase water and sodium reabsorption, increases potassium excretion in urine)
-controlled by angiotensin II (renin released from JG cells)
-receptors in DCT and collecting ducts

Front 81

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH/vasopressin)

Back 81

-polypeptide
-made in the hypothalamus (released from post pit, released when increased blood osmolarity or high BP)
-decreases urine production by creating holes in the collecting duct to allow more H2o reabsorption
-constricts blood vessels
-controlled by angiotensin II
-receptors in kidney and collecting duct

Front 82

Oxytocin

Back 82

-polypeptide
-made in hypothalamus, released from post pit
-stimulates contraction of smooth muscle fibers in the uterus and mammary gland (milk letdown, contractions involved in parturition)
-controlled by neural stimulation (positive feedback)
-receptors in mammary glands, uterus, and heart

Front 83

Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH)

Back 83

-polypeptide (44 amino acids)
-made in hypothalamus
-causes the release of growth hormone from somatotrophs in the ant pit
-controlled by neural stimulation
-receptors in endocrine cells (somatotrophs)

Front 84

Growth Hormone (GH/somatotropin)

Back 84

-polypeptide
-made in the somatotrophs in the ant pit
-acts directly on fat cells causing them to breakdown and release energy
-acts indirectly on the liver causing it to make GH into IGF-1
-causes muscle growth and bone growth by adding cartilage
-controlled by GHRH
-receptors in liver and fat

Front 85

IGF-1 (insulin like growth factor 1)

Back 85

-polypeptide (83 amino acids)
-made in the liver
-involved in muscle and bone growth
-controlled by GH
-receptors in muscle and bone

Front 86

Adrenocorticotropic releasing hormone (ACTH)

Back 86

-polypeptide (39 amino acids)
-made in corticotrophs in the ant pit
-causes the release of cortisol from the fasiculata of the adrenal cortex
-controlled by CRH
-receptors in the cells of fasiculata in the adrenal cortex

Front 87

Cortisol

Back 87

-steroid
-made in the zona fasiculata of the adrenal cortex
-anti-inflammatory
-stress
-decreases fertility
-matures fetal lungs
-increases glucose
-induces labor
-controlled by ACTH (negative feedback)
-receptors in neurons of the hypothalamus

Front 88

Triiodothyronine (T3)

Back 88

-Amines (T3 = 3 iodines)
-made in thryocytes in the thyroid gland
-thyroglobulin precursor
-increase metabolism
-increase heat production
-increase glucose uptake
-increase protein synthesis
-increase cholesterol synthesis

Front 89

Thyroxine (T4)

Back 89

-Amines (T4 = 4 iodines)
-made in the thyrocytes in the thyroid gland
-thyroglobulin precursor

-increase metabolism

-increase heat production

-increase glucose uptake

-increase protein synthesis

-increase cholesterol synthesis

Front 90

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

Back 90

-dimeric polypeptide
-made in the thyrotrophs (ant pit)
-stimulates secretion of T3 and T4 from the thyroid
-controlled by TRH
-receptors in the thryocytes

Front 91

Thyrotopin releasing hormone (TRH)

Back 91

-polypeptide (3 amino acids)
-made in hypothalamus
-stimulates the release of TSH
-controlled by T3 + T4
-receptors in the thryotrophs

Front 92

Corticotropic releasing hormone (CRH)

Back 92

-polypeptide (41 amino acids)
-made in the hypothalamus
-stimulates ant pit to make and release ACTH
-controlled by neg feedback from cortisol
-receptors in corticotrophs