Animal Biology Ch. 1-4

Front 1

Largest living structure on Earth and it's size

Back 1

Great Barrier Reef of Australia. 2,600km/133,000 sq/ miles

Front 2

How many cells make up the body

Back 2

75 to 100 trillion

Front 3

All cells are derived from a single cell known as a

Back 3

Zygote

Front 4

Characteristics Shared by All Living Things

Organization

Back 4

Living things are highly organized and expend a large amount of energy to maintain order

Front 5

Characteristics Shared by All Living Things

Metabolism

Back 5

Chemical reactions occurring in cells

Organisms acquire energy from their environment

Use energy to maintain internal order

Front 6

Characteristics Shared by All Living Things

Homeostasis

Back 6

Maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions

P.h. of blood is maintained by homeostasis.

Front 7

Characteristics Shared by All Living Things

Respond to Stimuli

Back 7

Organisms react to environmental changes that promote their survival

Front 8

Characteristics Shared by All Living Things

Growth

Back 8

Produces more or larger cells

Front 9

Characteristics Shared by All Living Things

Development

Back 9

Series of changes in state of a cell, tissue, organ, or organism.

Front 10

Characteristics Shared by All Living Things

Reproduction

Back 10

Produces organisms with defined set of characteristics.

Organisms reproduce to sustain life over many generations.

DNA provides blueprint for the organization, development, and function of living things.

Front 11

Characteristics Shared by All Living Things

Adapt and Evolve

Back 11

Evolution: Change in Allele frequencies in populations of organisms over time.

Pesticide resistant insects

Antibiotic resistant bacteria

Front 12

Bacteria

Back 12

Most primitive cells

Lack a nucleus

Have cell wall (outside of plasma membrane)

Front 13

Archaea

Back 13

Cells lack a nucleus

Have cell wall

Some live in extreme environments

Front 14

Eukarya

Back 14

Cells have a nucleus

Front 15

Protista

Back 15

Most are single celled organisms

Autotrophic or Heterotrophic

Usually no cell wall

Front 16

What is science?

Back 16

Observation, identification, experimental investigation, and theoretical explanation of natural phenomena.

Front 17

What is the scientific method?

Back 17

The general method used by scientific investigators to gather information about the natural world. Every reputable investigator adheres to this method.

Front 18

Steps in the scientific method

Back 18

1. Observation

2. Hypothesis

3. Design an Experiment (control group and experimental group)

4. Collect data

5. Draw a conclusion (hypothesis is supported or rejected).

6. Theory formation

Front 19

Analyzing graphs

Back 19

results plotted on Y axis

experimental value is plotted on X axis

Front 20

What is standard error?

Back 20

The statistical information that tells us how certain a particular variable is.

Front 21

Define an Atom

Back 21

Smallest unit of matter indivisible by normal chemical and physical means.

Can divide by chemical measures

Front 22

Molecule

Back 22

Two or more atoms joined together.

Front 23

Cell

Back 23

Smallest unit of life

Front 24

Organelle

Back 24

Compartmented regions of cytoplasm where specific reactions occur.

Front 25

Species

Back 25

Similarly constructed organisms capable of producing fertile offspring.

Front 26

Population

Back 26

All members of the SAME SPECIES living in a specific location.

Front 27

Community

Back 27

All of the members of different species living in a specific location.

Front 28

Ecosystem

Back 28

Composed of the living and non-living components of a given area.

Front 29

Biosphere

Back 29

The region above, on, and below the earth's surface capable of sustaining life.

Front 30

How many atoms make up the human body?

Back 30

At least 7 octillion

Front 31

These chemicals make up over 90% of the human body

Back 31

Hydrogen, Oxygen, Carbon, and Nitrogen

Front 32

Matter

Back 32

Anything that has a mass and takes up space

Front 33

Elements

Back 33

Basic building blocks of matter. Composed of the same type of atom.

Front 34

Atomic symbol

Back 34

Shorthand method for representing an element.

Front 35

Atomic Number

Back 35

Number of protons an atoms contains

Front 36

Atomic Mass

Back 36

Sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom

Front 37

Proton

Back 37

Positively charged subatomic particle

Located within the nucleus.

Front 38

Neutron

Back 38

Subatomic particle with no charge

Located within the nucleus

Front 39

Electron

Back 39

Negatively charged subatomic particle.

Atoms have the same number of protons as electrons.

Front 40

Isotope

Back 40

Atoms of the same element with same number of protons but a different number of neutrons.

Front 41

Molecules

Back 41

Forms when two or more atoms join together.

Can be made of the same atom or different atoms.

Front 42

Octet Rule

Back 42

Atoms most stable with eight electrons in outermost shell. (Exceptions is Hydrogen with only one shell and is full with only two electrons).

Front 43

Ionic Bonds

Back 43

Gain or loss of electrons that results in net electrical charge of an atom.

Not very strong bonds

A charged atom is an Ion.

Front 44

Cations

Back 44

Positively charged ions

Front 45

Anions

Back 45

Negatively charged ions.

Front 46

Covalent Bonds

Back 46

Strong bonds

Atoms share electrons

Electro-negativity: The ability of atoms to attract electrons in a bond with another atom.

Represented by a solid line.

Front 47

Non-polar Covalent Bonds

Back 47

Electrons are shared equally

No partial charges develop on atoms

Front 48

Polar Bonds

Back 48

Separation of charges in resulting molecule

Electrons are not shared equally

One atom "tugs" electron closer to it's nucleus.

Front 49

Hydrogen Bonds

Back 49

Weak chemical attraction b/w a partially positive atom of a polar molecule and a partially negative atom of another polar molecule.

Individually weak bonds.

Front 50

Water

Back 50

Solvent that serves as the medium in which chemical reactions occur.

Water molecules cling together

High Heat of Vaporization

Able to absorb heat without increasing much in temperature.

Front 51

Acid

Back 51

Releases hydrogen ions in solution

Front 52

Base

Back 52

Releases hydroxyl ions in solution

Front 53

pH scale

Back 53

Measure of H+ concentration of a solution.

pH can affect:

Shape and Function of Molecules

Chemical reaction rates

Ability of molecules to bind together

Ability of ions/molecules to dissolve in water.

Front 54

Acidic Solution

Basic Solution

Neutral Solution

Back 54

Acidic: pH<7

Basic: pH>7

Neutral: pH=7

Front 55

Salt

Back 55

Forms when an acid and base react

Front 56

Buffer

Back 56

Prevents drastic changes in pH of body fluids.

Front 57

Organic molecules

Back 57

Composed of carbon atoms in the form of chains or rings and also contain hydrogen.

Front 58

4 Organic Macro-molecules of Life

Back 58

Carbohydrates (starches/sugars)

Proteins

Lipids (fats)

Nucleic Acids

Front 59

Carbohydrates

Back 59

Sugars and Starches

Function:

Energy sources

Structural Elements

Recognition sites on membrane surfaces

Contain 1 C, 2 H, 1 O

Front 60

Monosaccharides

Back 60

Simple Sugars

Contain monomers (building blocks)

Contain glucose (fuel molecule burned to make quick energy) Ex: Fructose

Front 61

Disaccharides

Back 61

Polymers of mono-saccharides

2 mono-saccharides joined

Contain sucrose (table sugar)

Contain lactose (milk sugar)

Front 62

Polysaccharides

Back 62

Polymers of monosaccharides

Long chains of monosaccharides

Contains Glycogen (branched)--Primary storage form of glucose in animals

Contains Cellulose (unbranched)--Primary storage form of glucose in plants

Front 63

Proteins

Back 63

Composed of 20 commonly occurring amino acids (monomers).

Functions:

Structural Elements

Transport of Molecules and Ions

Enzymes (speed up chemical reactions and required to maintain homeostasis)

Defense of the body

Cell Signaling

Gene Expression and Regulation

Front 64

Lipids

Back 64

Fats and fat-like substances

Will not dissolve in water

Functions:

Primary component of biological membranes

hormones (testosterone, estrogen)

energy sources

body contour (adipose) and insulation (guards against excessive heat loss)

Front 65

Triglycerides

Back 65

Composed of glycerol and 3 fatty acids

Burn as fuel molecules to help meet long-term energy needs

Front 66

Saturated Triglycerides

Back 66

Each C in fatty acid is attached to 2 H atoms

Solid @ room temperature

Butter, lard, margarine

Front 67

Unsaturated Triglycerides

Back 67

Double bonds between some C atoms in fatty acid

Tend to be liquid @ room temperature

Corn oil, Sunflower Oil

Front 68

Phospholipids

Back 68

Primary component of membranes

Resemble triglycerides with one fatty acid replaced by a phosphate group

Phosphate group is charged :Head (polar)

Remainder of molecule is not charged: Tail (non-polar)

Front 69

Steroids

Back 69

Alcohols with fat-like properties

Composed of 4 fused carbon rings

Examples are:

Cholesterol

Testosterone

Estrogen

Progesterone

Front 70

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

Back 70

Storage of all information required for protein synthesis; repository of genetic information.

Front 71

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

Back 71

Transcription (copying) of code in DNA and translation of the code (protein synthesis).

Front 72

Carbon

Back 72

Can form bonds with many other atoms.

Can form strong stable bonds with other carbon atoms.

Distance b/w carbon atoms is short

Shorter bonds more stable than longer bonds

Front 73

Levels of Protein Organization (4)

Primary Structure

Secondary Structure

Tertiary Structure

Quaternary Structure

Back 73

Primary Structure: Linear sequence of amino acids. Genetically determined.

Secondary Structure: Folding or pleating of the primary structure.

Tertiary Structure: Involves 1 polypeptide bending and folding of the secondary structure.

Quaternary Structure: Association of multiple polypeptides

Front 74

What is the cell range size?

Back 74

1 to 100 micrometers

Front 75

Size of average human cell

Back 75

50 micrometers or 0.05mm in diameter

Front 76

Why are cells made up of many tiny cells instead of fewer larger cells?

Back 76

When a cell increases in size, the volume (contents) of the cell increase at a higher rater than the surface area.

Front 77

Prokaryotic Cells

Back 77

Most primitive cell type. No nucleus or membrane bound organelles.

Front 78

Archea

Back 78

Can live in diverse environments.

Front 79

Eukaryotic Cells

Back 79

Nucleus containing the genetic material (DNA).

Have membrane bound organelles.

Front 80

Organelles of Eukaryotic Cells

Plasma Membrane

Back 80

Composed of a phospholipid bi-layer and proteins.

Regulates movements into/out of cell

Selectively permeable

Front 81

Organelles of Eukaryotic Cells

Nucleus

Back 81

Part of endomembrane system

Storage of genetic information (DNA)

Usually large 10-20% of cell volume

Front 82

Part of nucleus

Chromatin

Back 82

DNA and Protein

When condensed called chromosomes

Front 83

Part of nucleus

Nuclear Envelope

Back 83

Double membrane

Defines boundaries of nucleus

Part of endomembrane system

Front 84

Part of nucleus

Nuclear Pores

Back 84

Allow molecules to pass into/out of nucleus

Front 85

Part of nucleus

Nucleolus

Back 85

Ribosomal components made here

Front 86

Organelles of Eukaryotic Cells

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Back 86

Rough ER: System of membranes

Studded with Ribosomes (protein synthesis)

Functions: Protein synthesis and attachment of sugars to proteins & lipids (aka, glycosylation).

Smooth ER: Continuous with Rough ER

Lacks ribosomes

Functions: Lipid synthesis and detoxification

Front 87

Organelles of Eukaryotic Cells

Golgi Apparatus

Back 87

Part of endo-membrane system

Stack of membranes

Receives material from ER

Functions: Sorts, modifies and packages ER products

vesicle formation

Front 88

Organelles of Eukaryotic Cells

Vesicle

Back 88

Part of endo-membrane system

Membrane bound sac

Function: Storage/transport, detoxification, and digestion.

Front 89

Lysosome

Back 89

Digest worn-out cells parts, pathogens, and debris.

Contain hydrolytic enztymes

Front 90

Cytoskeleton

Back 90

Microtubules: Long, hollow, cylindrical structures.

Composed of protein tubulin

Maintain cell shape, movement, and organelles and chromosomes

Intermediate Filaments: Mechanical strength

Maintain cell shape.

Actin Filaments: Maintain cell shape

Movement

Front 91

Mitochondrion

Back 91

Power house of the cell

Site of ATP synthesis (inner-membrane)

Double membrane

Self-replicating

Mitochondrial DNA

Front 92

Centriole

Back 92

Composed of microtubules, separation of chromosomes during division.

Front 93

Flagella

Back 93

Composed of mictrotubules

Usually long and singular

Movement of entire cell (requires ATP

Front 94

Cilia

Back 94

Compose of microtubules

Usually short and multiple

In humans, move material across cells

Front 95

Adhering Junctions

Back 95

Join plasma membranes of adjacent cells together.

Cytoskeletal elements extend from one cell to the next.

Anchor cells together

Common in skin cells

Two types:

Zonula Adherent (adhesion junction and wrap around cell in belt like fashion)

Desmosome (spot welds, small circular junctions).

Front 96

Occluding Junctions

Back 96

Prevent material from passing between adjacent cells. Forms a seal b/w cells

Zips cells together

Common in Kidney

Type of this junction:

Zonula Occludens "tight junctions". Wrap around cell in belt like fashion.

Front 97

Communicating Junctions

Back 97

Allows material to pass from cell to cell.

Type:

Gap Junction (small circular complexes,forms channels b/w adjacent cells).

Front 98

How things move across the plasma membrane:

Back 98

1. Diffusion

2. Osmosis

3. Facilitated Transport

4. Active Transport

5. Endocytosis

6. Exocytosis

Front 99

Diffusion

Back 99

Random movement of molecules from a higher concentration to a lover concentration.

No energy required.

Front 100

Osmosis

Back 100

Diffusion of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane.

Higher concentration to lower concentration

No energy required

Fluids may be able to alter the shape of cells

Front 101

Isotonic fluids

Back 101

Have sole solute concentration as water concentration. No net movement of water.

Cell shapes no altered.

Front 102

Hypotonic fluids

Back 102

Have lower solute concentration and higher water concentration than cells. Water enters cells. Cell may swell and burst. Ex: Distilled water.

Front 103

Hypertonic fluids

Back 103

Have higher solute concentration and lower water concentration than cells. Water leaves cells.

Cells shrivel (crenate). Ex: Sea water.

Front 104

Tonicity

Back 104

Ability of a fluid to change cell shape by altering water content.

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Solute

Back 105

Particles dissolved in a fluid.

Front 106

Solvent

Back 106

Fluid in which the solute is dissolved.

Front 107

Facilitated Transport

Back 107

Transport of molecules requiring a carrier protein

Molecules moved from higher concentration to lower concentration.

No energy required.

Front 108

Endocytosis

Back 108

Transports molecules or cells into the cell.

Plasma membrane invaginates around material

Vesicle forms and is incorporated into cell.

Front 109

Exocytosis

Back 109

Transport molecules out of the cell.

Vesicle containing molecules fuses with plasma membrane.

Vesicle opens releasing contents.

Front 110

How much dust does dead skin in the atmosphere make up?

Back 110

1 billion tons

Front 111

How many skin cells per minute does a person shed

Back 111

50,000

Front 112

What is the span, weight and number of blood vessels contain in an adult's skin?

Back 112

21 square feet, weighs 9 pounds, and contains > 11 miles of blood vessels.

Front 113

How much seat per day does skin release in hot weather?

Back 113

3 gallons

Front 114

Tissues

Back 114

Groups of similar cells working together to perform a specific function.

Front 115

4 basic types of cells

Back 115

1. Epithelial

2. Connective

3. Muscle

4. Nervous

Front 116

Epithelial Tissue

Back 116

Two types: Epithelium

Glandular Epithelium

Front 117

Epithelium Tissue

Back 117

Cover body surfaces and line body cavities

Function:

Secretion

Absorption

Protection

Front 118

Glandular Epithelium

Back 118

Derived from epithelial tissue

Contains:

Exocrine Glands--Equipped with ducts to transport product

Endocrine Glands--Ductless Glands. Highly vascular, product (hormones) transported by blood

Front 119

Connective Tissue

Back 119

Cartilage, bone, fat, etc.

Function:

Bind tissues, structures together (Ex: tendons/ligaments)

Protection

Support (bones of skeleton)

Insulation of body (adipose tissue)

Transport of vital materials (blood)

Front 120

Connective Tissue

Cells

Back 120

Fibroblasts---Most common, secrete matrix and fibers

Macrophages--Engulf debris

White Blood Cells--Defend body from disease

Plasma Cells--Secrete antibodies

Front 121

Fibers

Back 121

Secreted by fibroblasts

Collagen Fibers--Imparts great tensile strength to tissues

Elastic Fibers--Responsible for elasticity of tissue

Reticular Fibers--Structural framework for liver, lymph organs

Front 122

Extracellular Matrix

Back 122

Gel like consistency

Prevents invasion by bacteria

Allows water soluble materials to diffuse through

Front 123

Types of muscle tissue

Back 123

Skeletal (most attached to skeleton)

Cardiac (Heart)

Smooth (Walls of organs/glands)

Front 124

Neuron

Back 124

Only cell in nervous system capable of conducting nerve impulses.

Structural and functional unit of nervous system.

Front 125

Integumentary System

Back 125

Functions:

Protection

Prevention of Water Loss

Regulation of Body Temperature

Excretion of Waste Products

Synthesis of Vitamin D

Sensory Reception

Front 126

Epidermis

Back 126

Outer layer of skin

Composed of epithelial tissue

Front 127

Types of Skin Cells

Back 127

1. Keratinocytes

2. Melanocytes

3. Merkel Cells

4. Langerhan Cells

5. Dermis

Front 128

Keratinocytes

Back 128

Most common

Produce Water insoluable protein (keratin)

Arranged in 4 zones in thick skin

1. Stratum Basale: Inntermost layer of epidermins, single layers of living cells.

2. Stratum Spinosum: Next layer up. Spiny shaped living cells.

3. Straum Granulosum: Mixture of live and dead cells.

4. Stratum Lucidum: Only seen in thick skin, cells are dead.

Front 129

Melanocytes

Back 129

Produce pigment/melanin (black, brown, yellow)

Protects DNA from damage by UV light

Beta Carotene: Derived from diet--yellow orange. Stored in adipose tissue (fat)

Hemoglobin: Located in red blood cells, O2 transporting protein is Bright Red but pink when combine with O2

Front 130

Merkel Cells

Back 130

Touch receptors (b/w epidermis and dermis). Ex: Fingertips

Front 131

Langerhan Cells

Back 131

Defensive cells

Protection from disease causing agents

Front 132

Dermis

Back 132

Inner layer of skin

Highly vascularized

Contains sensory structures, lymph vessels, nerves, glands

Front 133

Sensory Structures of the Dermis

Back 133

Meissner's Corpuscles--Light touch (finger tips)

Pacinian Corpuscles--Deep pressure (large, look like an onion cut in half).

Front 134

Hypodermis

Back 134

Lies beneath dermis

Not a layer of the skin

Contains much adipose (fat) tissue

Function. Body contour, insulation

Females have a thicker layer of adipose tissue than males.

Front 135

Glands

Back 135

Derived from epithelial tissue

Front 136

Sweat Glands

Back 136

Eccrine: 2.5 million in the body. Function in temperature regulation

Apocrine: Function in humans is unknown. No role in temperature regulation.

Front 137

Sebaceous Glands

Back 137

Oil Glands

All regions of the body except for the palms and soles have these.

Large on face, neck, and upper chest. Produce sebum which lubricates skin and hair.

Clogged ducts with bacterial invasion is know as ACNE.

Front 138

Hair Follicles

Back 138

Organs that produce hair

Front 139

Hair

Back 139

Dead, Keratinized cells

Dark hair color is due to melanin production

If melanin contains iron and sulfur blonde or red hair results.

Gray hair has a lack of melanin

White hair is when air is trapped in hair shaft.

Front 140

What causes goose pimples?

Back 140

Contraction of arrector pili muscles

These attach to the hair follicles causing the hairs to contract and "stand on end"

Front 141

Nails

Back 141

Protective covering of distal part of fingers and toes.

Grows from special epithelial cell @ base of nail known as the nail root.

Front 142

Lunula

Back 142

White colored half moon shape at the nail based that results from the thick layers of cells there.

As nail grows over the nail bed it hardens becoming karatinized.