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160 Cards in this Set
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- Back
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What are the integral parts of the term 'animal behaviour'? |
anatomy/ physiology/ endocrinology/ neurobiology (processes in an animal's body) evolution/ development/ genetics (environment) psychology/ learning and cognition/ social (how animals process information based on their biological processes and environment) |
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Define neuroendocrine |
the link between nerves and hormones |
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What is the use of knowledge of animal behaviour? |
human development/ deep human interest in animals conservation biology/ evolution/ animal welfare/ animal utility economics/ psychology/ social science |
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Define animal behaviour |
all observable processes by which an animal responds to perceived changes in the internal state of its body or in the external world |
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Define ethologist |
someone who studies behaviour in the natural or near natural world |
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Who was Tinbergen? |
an ethologist who studied small brightly coloured fish and the adaptation of bird eggs |
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What are Tinbergen's Four Questions? |
causation ontogeny adaptation phylogeny |
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What is Tinbergen's causation question (and example)? |
what stimulates the animal to respond with the behavior it displays, and what are the response mechanisms? e.g. Flamingo nest building instincts are activated by synchronised courtship displays |
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What is Tinbergen's ontogeny question (and example)? |
how does an organism develop as the individual matures? e.g. Refinement of nest height in accordance with environmental variables(temperature, wind & flooding). |
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What is Tinbergen's adaptation question (and example)? |
why is the behavior necessary for the animal's success and how does evolution act on that behaviour? e.g. To protect the eggs & chicks |
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What is Tinbergen's phylogeny question (and example)? |
how has a particular behavior evolved through time? e.g. Nests of an incorrect size caused high chickmortality |
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What are the different levels of study? |
population species individual act cellular |
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Define ethogram |
a definitive list of species-specific behaviour used to help catalogue and describe all observed actions |
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What do you need to consider when making an ethogram? |
Whether or not thebehaviour is natural? What appropriatecategories the behaviour falls into. Clear definitions ofbehaviour that makes your method repeatable. |
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Why should we care about behavioural definitions? |
Methods must be repeatable and valid. Behaviour can be subjective. By having a standard descriptive we addobjectivity. Animals can only do onething at a time, so it important that researchers categorise behaviourcorrectly. |
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What three responses does the body give to stimuli? |
neuroendocrine response (nervous system and endocrine system) learned response cognitive response |
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What are some internal factors that cause behaviour? |
biological rhythms (daily time schedules reset by zeitgebers/ annual movements are normally in tune with seasonal change) motivations (either homeostatic or not homeostatic: Specificalterations to, or cues from, physiological state.) homeostasis (very important regulatory role over behaviour e.g.hunger and thirst/ temperature regulation.) |
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What are some external factors that cause behaviour? |
biotic factors (population density/ sex ratio) abiotic factors (light/ temperature/ tide/ features in habitat) |
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What are some context dependent factors that cause behaviour? |
alteration of a reaction to stimuli with time animal is able to differentiate between stimuli to produce the most appropriate response, save energy and increase survival |
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What are some errors that cause behaviour? |
misconception or misidentification of a stimuli (e.g. hatchling turtles) |
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Why would learning develop? |
learning from others permits spread of behaviour faster than inheritance learning from others permits horizontal, as well as vertical transmission of behaviour may be essentially useful for common behaviour in a changing environment development and change of behaviour occurs due to copying errors |
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Name six types of learning |
innate behaviour maturation chance self learning learning from others insight learning |
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What is innate behaviour? (types of learning) |
Fixed action patterns Innate behaviour can be complex, with a stronggenetic basis, and is little influenced by environment. May be especially useful for important but rareevents (predator responses) that facilitate immediate survival. May be essential if there is no opportunity tolearn. Development and change occurs via evolution. |
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What are fixed action patterns? |
Fixed action patterns (animal is responding toa supernormal stimuli)- behaviour continues when stimuli is removed (e.g. Geeserolling egg) |
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What is maturation? (types of learning) |
Behaviours change or start to be expressed atpredictable stages as the individual ages Facilitated learning hypothesis Environmental factors may affect maturation (e.g.food supply) |
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What is chance? (types of learning) |
Behaviour is determined by a single (or few)specific environmental event experienced at a crucial stage in life Events early in life can have long-termconsequences if they affect development of behavioural mechanisms. Chance events can prevent the expression ofbehaviours as well as prompt them |
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What is self learning? (types of learning) |
Behaviours change as the individual repeats them,modifying their actions in response to experienced outcomes e.g. imprinting/ conditioning/ habituation/ discriminative learning/ associative learning Development and change in such behaviour depends onexperience acting on a genetic base |
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What is discriminative learning? |
Learning to make different responses to differentstimuli |
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What is associative learning? |
classical conditioning |
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What is learning from others? (types of learning) |
Observing and imitating behaviour May be especially useful for common behaviours in achanging environment Development and change behaviour occurs due tocopying errors |
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What is insight learning? (types of learning) |
A flash of inspiration or ‘Eureka!’ moment andgenerally considered the highest form of learning Evidence for insight is currently weak and one mustexclude experience/trial and error first Development and change could be rapid, once generalconcepts acquired |
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How does natural selection work in practice? |
huge numbers of individuals are produced insufficient resources for all, so many die before reproducing individuals vary in attributes individuals with attributes better suited to environment are less likely to die these individuals will be represented over the next generation |
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What things effect differences in animals' reproductive output? |
fecundity (the number of offering they can create) their attractiveness the numberof mates they can obtain sum of their offspring. |
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What behaviours maximise survival? |
hiding from predators escaping from predators increasing amount of food eaten reducing energetic costs evolutionarily stable strategy |
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What is an evolutionarily stable strategy? |
astrategy, which, if adopted by a population in a given environment,cannot be invaded by any alternative strategy that is initially rare(e.g. the relationship between red breasted geese and owls). |
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What behaviours have a survival function? |
being in obscure places being aggressive allowing other members to be eaten making themselves bigger |
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What are some behaviours that aid reproductiveness? |
increasing attractiveness increasing access to mates increasing futility increasing survival of young |
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What are some behaviours that improve reproductive success? |
increase chances of being attractive to females increase access to mates reducing cost to self increase the survival rate of young |
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What behaviours reduce the cost to 'self'? |
having a partner to help making one partner do all the work making your family do some of the work making someone completely different do all the work |
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What is the adaptive landscape? |
used to visualize therelationship between genotypes and reproductivesuccess- genotypes affect phenotypes |
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What is epistasis? |
a phenomenon whereby the expression of one gene depends upon thepresence of the others around it. A gene can be expressed or repressed by theother genes around it. |
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What is divergent evolution? |
evolution of different features from a common ancestor; resulting in differences between speices adaptive radiation: Darwin's finches |
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What is convergent evolution? |
evolution of similar features in unrelated species due to similar environmental pressures |
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Define parsimonious |
Theprocess that requires the least number of changes |
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What do behaviours arise? |
pre-existing behaviour pre-existing bias adaptive co-evolution |
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What is pre-existing behaviour? (why do behaviours arise) |
Ritualisation or co-option (“Integrationof pre-existing behavioural elements into novel contexts.”) This can occur within aspecies (e.g. reproductive / courtship displays) or across aspecies (e.g. aggression calls in different species of bowerbird) |
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What is pre-existing bias? (why do behaviours arise) |
Sensoryexploitation (“Stimulatingphysiological, neurological and psychological biases previously evolved in adifferent context.”)- Something that exists already that animals can use to geta new behaviour The function of behaviour can either besuggested or completely unclear. |
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What is adaptive co-evolution? |
“Coordinated change between two (ormore) elements of ecology/morphology/behaviour.” |
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What are complicating factors in the evolutionary function of behaviour? |
missing species (incomplete fossil records) changed environment changed selection pressures |
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What are the two groups animals fall into in terms of what food they eat? |
generalists(e.g. urban foxes who have evolved to live among people and eat from bins) and specialists (e.g. pandas only eatbamboo) |
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What are the two groups animals fall into in terms of how much food they eat? |
Selectors(e.g. giraffes only take from specific bits of trees) vs. bulk feeders (e.g. elephants eat entire tree). |
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What are the two groups animals fall into in terms of how often they eat? |
High metabolic rate (e.g. hummingbirds have to feed every 20 minutes) vs. low metabolic rate (e.g. crocodiles who only eat once a year) |
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What are the two groups animals fall into in terms of how they react to environmental changes? |
Conformers:Some species have to conform to prevailingenvironmental conditions (e.g. frogs that have to regulate temperature toenvironment) Regulators: Somespecies are regulators and have precise control over internal physiology (e.g.bears can control temperature) |
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What is the medicinal value of food? |
Animals can choose parts of their diet depending on how they are feeling(e.g. elephants ear soil) |
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Will animals always avoid food that induces sickness? |
Generaliststhat may encounter many different food types pay attention to sickness inducingcues (e.g. dogs) Specialists that only ever each one type of foodhave no facultative response (e.g. cats) |
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What is the optimal foraging theory? |
larger items have more energy but also cost more in time and energy to find Look for trade off when: optimum = maximum energyintake/cost. |
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What is the marginal value theorem? |
The animalmust ask the question “at what point do I leave my current feeding patch to goand find a new one?” They debate: Potentialenergy available at current patch. Energyexpenditure when travelling to new feeding site. Energyexpended searching for food in a (increasingly) diminished feeding site Energy available in new foraging areas |
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What is a primary defence? |
reducing the probability of an attack (e.g. antelopefollow lions) |
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What are some examples of primary defences? |
remaining hidden pretending to be dangerous (Mullerian mimicry: honest signal/ Batesian mimicry: dishonest signal) reducing odds of being selected |
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What is a secondary defence? |
reducing likelihood of successful attack |
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What are some examples of secondary defences? |
distraction mobbing alarm calls "showing off" |
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What are the benefits of being in a group? |
Dilution(e.g. penguins are eaten by leopard seals- they push each other into water sothey are more likely to be eaten) Confusion(e.g. countershading- penguins have white bellies and black backs) Selfishherding (e.g. zebras herd so they are harder to distinguish between) Vigilance |
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What is Linnaean Classification? |
all species have a name conforming to a binomial or trinomial system (genus/ species/ subspecies) |
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What is the Biological Species Concept? |
"Species are groups of interbreedingnatural populations that are reproductively isolated from other suchgroups." A reproductively isolated population (it can onlybreed with other animals that look like it does) If all animals are breeding within species, thenthere shouldn’t be any variation within species |
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What is the Phenotypic Species Concept?
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“A species is a set oforganisms that are sufficiently similar to one another and sufficientlydifferent from members of other species.” The problem with this isthat in many species males and females look differently from each other, yetthey still know to breed with each other- this is why the BSC is better |
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What evidence is there for evolution? |
Observations of change on a small scale. Inferential evidence of change on a larger scale. Homologies between species are important. Fossil record… The existence ofadaptation? |
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What is an extant species? |
something that is around today |
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What are the three theories for the history of life? |
Things evolve gradually over time There is transformation that occurs very quickly with no breaks Things are created independently |
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Name an example that shows the manipulation of evolution |
peppered moths |
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What are ring species? |
the extreme forms do not breed together in theregion of overlap the problem with hybrids innature is they cannot breed etc. so species do not want to create hybrids The middle intermediate forms when they overlap ina hybrid zone will breed together but the extreme forms that are completelydifferent when they overlap they don’t recognise each other as species andtherefore don’t breed |
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How are ring species evidence for evolution? |
Theseexamples show that intraspecific differences can be large enough to produceinterspecific differences. |
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What is the benefit of creating new reproductively distinctspecies experimentally? |
You can see how long it takes evolution to createsomething new |
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Define uniformitarianism |
what we have seen before, tells us what we know now |
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What are homologous similarities? |
structures that occur due to a common ancestor |
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What are vestigial structures? |
something that used to be bigger and better, that is not used but exists can date when structures were lost |
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What is cultural evolution? |
non-genetic evolution (things change but through experience and learning) e.g. monkeys observe husks of plants being removed by humans to make them more palatable |
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What is natural selection the only mechanism known to cause? |
the evolution of adaptions that make individuals "fitter" |
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What is the cost-benefit model of adaptations? |
an economic term that allows analysis of phenotypes in terms of fitness benefits and fitness costs |
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What is mobbing behaviour? |
an adaptive strategy to reduce predation risk onthe young and eggs it distracts the attention of predators, decreasingoffspring and egg mortality and increasing reproductive success (fitness) |
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What is the dilution effect? |
seen in animals, birds and insects join a larger group so they reduce chance of being chosen by predator |
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What is sexual selection? |
a form of Natural Selection but only for breedingbehaviour an evolutionary process whereby some individualsgain an advantage over others in relation to reproduction |
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Name the theories of sexual selection |
intrasexual selection (male-male competition) intersexual selection (female choice) |
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What tells us why animals work so hard to preserve traits in populations? |
measuring each stage of the life cycle from zygote to the zygote they produce |
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What does speciation do? |
form the bridge between the evolution of populations and the evolution of taxonomic diversity |
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What does speciation mean? |
that different types of animal undergo independentdivergence maintaining separate identities, evolutionary tendencies and fates |
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What is the problem with speciation? |
often too fast to be documentedin the fossil record but too slow for us to study as it occurs (e.g. thepeppered moth evolution happened within a couple of decades) |
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Why do we define species? |
Enables usto classify organisms systematically Correspondsto discrete groups of similar organisms (problems arise when coincidences occurin different species looking similar when they are unrelated) Helps usto understand how discrete clusters of organisms arise in nature Representsproducts of evolutionary history Applies tothe largest possible variety of organisms |
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Why do we need definitions of species? |
There isvariation within the same population (e.g. species that have variation such ascolour (snow goose) will still breed with each other but that doesn’t createnew species) There isvariation between populations of a species (e.g. humans all look different butthey know they are the same species). There aresibling species to further cause confusion (similar species are separated byregion) |
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What does effective population size tell you? |
how much variation in genetic material is passed onto the next generation |
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Define cline |
A gradual change in character(or in allele frequencies over geographic distance). e.g. bigger animals are bigger because they areliving in colder places (e.g. sizes of bear) |
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What do pre-zygotic barriers do? |
prevent (or reduce the likelihood of) transfer ofgametes to members of another species. |
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Name three examples of pre-zygotic barriers |
ecological isolation (e.g. cheetahs have totally separate genus to leopards) behavioural isolation post-mating pre-zygotic barriers |
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What are post zygotic barriers? |
consist ofreduced survival or reproductive rates of hybrid zygotes. |
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What are some examples of post-zygotic barriers? |
Hybrid unviability Hybrid sterility |
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What is gamete isolation? |
Gametes of different speciesfail to unite. |
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Why don't hybrids always work? |
unviable hybrids sterile hybrids |
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What are unviable hybrids? |
Hybrids often have lowersurvival rates than “full species”. Mortality is often intrinsicduring embryogenesis due to developmental problems. |
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What are sterile hybrids? |
Survival to maturity but unableto produce viable gametes and are hence infertile. |
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What are the four types of how species form? |
allopatric peripatric parapatric sympatric |
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What is allopatric speciation? |
Speciationthat occurs when biological populations of the same species become vicariant,or isolated from each other to an extent that prevents or interferes withgenetic interchange (e.g. birds of paradise) Linked to the idea of adaptive radiation |
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What is adaptive radiation? |
a process in which organisms diversify rapidly intoa multitude of new forms, particularly when a change in the environment makesnew resources available, creates new challenges, or opens new environmentalniches |
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What is peripatric speciation? |
New species are formed in isolated peripheralpopulations Very similar toallopatric speciation BUT one population is much smaller than the other (e.g. bears) |
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What is parametric speciation? |
occurs when populations are separated not by ageographical barrier, such as a body of water, but by an extreme change inhabitat. While populations in these areas may interbreed, they often developdistinct characteristics and lifestyles. (e.g. group of lizards who all have flap of skin) |
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What is sympatric speciation? |
Newspecies evolve from a single ancestral species while inhabiting the samegeographic region. E.g.fish that have different ways of collecting food |
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What is the comparative approach? |
seeksto understand this process of adaptation (natural selection) though comparing adaptations betweenspecies or populations. (e.g. polar bears, arctic hare, snowy owl all have black skin and clear fur) |
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What are potential problems with the comparative approach? |
Our definitions may bevague (patchy food resources in weaver birds, or differences in predation inungulates) for example. We need rigorous testsof the ecological factors concerned |
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What is parthenogenesis? |
virgin birth |
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Can animals change how they reproduce? If so, name an example |
yes, aphids can reproduce sexually (when there is lots of foodaround) and asexually (in times of the year when there is not much food) |
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Why doessexual reproduction occur? |
Geneticvariation; increased heterozygosity. Whichallows for coping with future environmental changes Potential to outcome evolving parasites |
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What is the "red queen" hypothesis? |
you have to keep moving to stay in the same place |
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What are the differences between sexes? |
Malegametes:Producedin large numbers, cheap, mobile & easily replenished. Femalegametes:Producedin restricted numbers, finite supply & immobile. |
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What are the basics of sexual selection? |
Gene flowis important as it moves genetic material between populations (don’t wantanimals to become inbred) Themovement of genetic variation between populations and individuals in thatpopulation Allowsanimals to have the option to choose who they breed with |
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What is Fisher's process? |
phase 1: female preferences initially evolve because the preferred trait is favoured by natural selection and hence the offspring are more likely to carry the beneficial trait phase 2: 'run away selection' (trait choice is established, males with trait are fitter, increase in sexual selection for this trait, increase in selective forces and development of more extreme traits |
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What is the Fixed Relative performance model |
Kirkpatrick (1982) relationship between change in trait and matingfrequency / success. |
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What are some factors that affect mating (honest signals)? |
appearance position of male in relation to female aerobic capacity |
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How can females increase reproductive success? |
by persuading males to invest more in offspring which means they can divert resources to other progeny |
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What is the problem with females increasing reproductive success by persuading males to invest more in offspring? |
the malewants to reduce investment in parental care therefore an evolutionary conflict of interestsexists between the sexes |
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What is assortative mating? |
Sexually reproducing organisms tend to mate withindividuals that are like themselves in some respect |
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What will influence mating systems? |
social and economical resources |
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Name six mating systems |
monogamy polygyny polyandry polygynandrous promiscuous strategies mate choice in homo sapiens |
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Describe monogamy mating and give an example |
One male/one female Usually when both parents are required for parentalcare Generally seen in species when the species look thesame Monogamous species have fewer offspring but of veryhigh quality as they can look after them better E.g. swans/ geese |
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Describe polygyny mating and give an example |
One male/ multi female Females can carry out parental care alone Males are usually sexually dimorphic (looksdifferent) E.g. gorillas (only role of male gorilla is to protectthe area that they live in- resource defence) Lek systems |
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What are lek systems? |
An area of ground divided into territories thatare vigorously defended by males for purposes of sexual display and matingduring the breeding season |
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Describe polyandry mating and give an example |
One female/multi male; very uncommon. Areas where females need more eggs E.g. Eclectus parrots (females are trying tospread as many eggs as possible, not the males as there are not many females inthe population overall) |
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Describe polygynandrous mating and give an example |
Polygynandrous species can be stable pairs thathave “extra-marital affairs”. Maximises genetic variation |
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Describe promiscuousstrategies mating and give an example |
Males and females meet briefly to mate; no pairbond is formed Resource or display site defence E.g. birds of paradise |
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Describe mate choice in homo sapiens and give an example |
Positive correlation between salivary cortisol& odour preference in women The importance of facial symmetry |
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How do parents invest in their young? |
investmentin numbers. investmentin egg production investmentin care of eggs. investmentin care of young. investmentin post-independent young cooperativeinvestment abandonedinvestment |
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What can the processes of mutation and recombination give rise to? |
genetic differences in characteristics amongmembers of a population (foundation for evolution) |
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What non-genetic factors can result in variation? |
what animals are exposed to (e.g. When a carp is exposedto a predator that will eat fish, it gets bigger) |
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How many gene pairs is all life on earth based on? |
four |
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What can the genetic control either be? |
monogenetic or polygenetic |
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Define monogenetic determinism |
A direct correspondence between one gene andone behaviour. This is difficult toestablish but has been demonstrated in a number of cases. (e.g. honey bees: If you change the genetic makeup of honeybees sothey stop being hygienic, you affect the whole health of that bee colony) |
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Define polygenetic determinism |
Behaviour is often a decision making process.Individuals have to gather information, memorise and process it and finallymake a decision according to the information It is unlikely that such a suite of capacities isunder the control of a single gene |
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Name four things that have an effect on development |
environment season maternal environment paternal enviroment |
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Name an example of environmental effects on development |
Reptile development: Sex of theoffspring in turtles and crocodiles determined by heat of environment |
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Name an example of seasonal effects on development |
African satyric butterfly: Those whohatch in the rainy season (when food quality is better) look different to thosewho hatch in the dry season (when food is limited) |
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Name an example of maternal effects on development |
The amount of testosterone deposited in the eggsvaries with breeding condition, which enables maternal effects to reflect thestate of the local environment |
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Name an example of paternal effects on development |
Dung beetles: Males can be separated into twodiscrete morphs: large, ‘‘major’’ males have head horns (If males are reallygood at rolling dung), whereas ‘‘minor’’ males are hornless. If males are bad at rollingdung, they will produce a smaller ball of dung for the female to lay heroffspring in, which means the offspring will have smaller/ non-existent horns |
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Define founder effect |
the original genetic material that affects what yousee in the future |
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What does understanding the process for evolution require? |
an understanding of genetic variation and the wayin which it is transformed into evolutionary change |
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What is an example of a genetic difference in what theanimal looks like but is dependent on environmental context? |
Mimicry |
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What is the Wallace line? |
A faunal boundary It provides evidence ofevolutionary relationships and ancestry between species. It describes the reasons forthe biogeography (term that describes where animals come from and whatparticular habitats we see them in) of specific parts of the world. |
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What is linkage disequilibrium? |
Non-random association of alleles at different loci An association between alleles at different locithat is different from what would be expected if alleles were independently,randomly sampled |
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What is linkage disequilibrium influenced by? |
selection recombination mutation genetic drift particular mating system and population structure |
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Define wild type |
when one allele is the most common |
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Define genotype frequency |
the proportion of individuals that have thatspecific genotype |
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Define allele frequency |
The proportion of gene copies in a population |
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What are the types of species-focused conservation strategies? |
Insitu (looking at an animal in its natural habitat) Ex situ (animal is put in controlled environment) |
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What is the difference between preservation and conservation? |
Conservation aims tomaintain a species’ ability to adapt and change to future pressures. If we preserve exactlywhat we have now, a species will not be able to survive into the future |
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What is holistic conservation? |
preservingnot just the animal, but everything around it- their eco system also |
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What is animal welfare? |
Thestate of an individual as it attempts to cope with its environment |
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Howcan animal behaviour science help with the definition of welfare? |
state of individual (physiological measurements via behaviour) attempts at coping (self-directed behaviours/ dysfunctional behaviour patterns) effect of environment (stressors/ fight or flight response) |
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Define appetitivebehaviours |
theaction of the behaviour is more important to the animal than what it gets inthe end |
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Define consummatorybehaviour |
abehaviour with a defined end goal- an appetitive behaviour will lead to aconsummatory behaviour |
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Why does the stress response cause problems? |
alarm-resistance-exhaustion thereis disruptedhomeostasis / abnormal behaviour / suppressed growth, development, reproductionetc. etc. |
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Melfi (2009); evidence-based animal management |
Evolutionary aspects of design lead to husbandry, captive provision, enclosure design which leads to positive welfare |
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Melfi & Hosey (2011); application of “behavioural husbandry” |
Theuse of behavioural husbandry as a way of improving the lives of managedspecies Are techniques ofbehavioural husbandry useful? Do they work to better the lives of managedindividuals? |
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Why do animals with friends live longer? |
Hierarchy and socialposition very important. Investmentin social behaviour alleviates stress |
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What is kin selection? |
Evolutionarymechanism that helps explain why individuals help each other out, probablybecause they are related to each other Individualshelp relatives because relatives share genes. By helping relatives to surviveand reproduce, individuals are helping perpetuate copies of their genes |
