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318 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Fixed-wing Aircraft Structure
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1. Fuselage 2. Wings 3. Tail assembly or empennage 4. Landing gear 5. Powerplant 6. Flight instruments/controls and control surfaces
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Fuselage
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Body of the airplane. Contains the cockpit, the cabin, cargo area (if there is one) attachment points for other major air plane components such as wings, tail section, and landing gear.
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Firewall
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a fireproof partition between the engine compartment and the cockpit/cabin to protect the crew and passengers (if any) from a fire in the engine.
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Truss
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fuselage construction- truss construction fuselages use steel or aluminum tubing in a series of triangular shapes to get the necessary strength and rigidity.
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Monocoque
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fuselage construction- designs use bulkheads, stringers (running the length of the fuselage) and formers (perpendicular to the stringers) of various sizes and shapes to support a stretched or "stressed" skin,
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Airfoil
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An aircraft part or surface (such as wings, propeller blades or rudder) that controls lift, direction, stability, thrust, or propulsion for the aircraft
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High wing, mid-wing, low-wing
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wings may be attached at the top, middle, or bottom
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Monoplanes
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airplanes with one set of wings
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Biplanes
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airplanes with two sets of wings, usually stacked vertically
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Cantilever
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(in terms of wing bracing and support) cantilever wings require no external bracing, getting its support from internal wing spars, ribs, stringers and construction of the wing's skin or covering.
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Semi-Cantilver
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(in terms of wing bracing and support) requires both internal bracing and external support from struts attached to the fuselage
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Ailerons and flaps
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Control surfaces, both are attached to to the rear (trailing) edges of the wings.
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Ailerons
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Extend from about the middle of the wing out toward the wingtop; they move in opposite directions to create aerodynamic forces that cause the airplane to roll.
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Flaps
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Extend outward from near where the wing joins the fuselage (called the wing root) to about the middle of the wing's trailing edge.
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Flaps are usually flush with the rest of the wing surface during cruising (constant speed, neither climbing nor diving) flight.
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When flaps are extended, the flaps move downward together to increase the lift of the wing for takeoffs and landings.
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Bernoulli's Principle
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For an inviscid flow, on increase in the speed of the fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or decrease in the fluid's potential energy.
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Airfoil Shape
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Provides lift when it splits the airstream through which it is moving.
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Camber
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In between the leading and trailing edge, an airfoil is curved; the top surface usually has a greater curve than the bottom surface. When a surface is curved, we say it has camber.
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Aerodynamics identified by Bernoulli's Principle
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Provides lift to an aircraft. Because the top surface of the wing has more camber than the bottom surface, the air flows faster over the top of the wing than it does underneath. This means that there is less air pressure about the wing than there is underneath; the difference in air pressure above and below the wing causes lift.
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Different airfoil shapes generate different amounts of lift and drag.
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In general, low to medium speed airplanes have airfoils with more thickness and camber.
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Chord
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The distance from the leading edge of the wings to the trailing edge.
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Chord line
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the line fromt he middle of the leading edge to the trailing edge, which cuts the airfoil into an upper surface and a lower surface.
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Mean camber line
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If we plot the points that lie halfway between the upper and lower surfaces, we obtain a curve called the mean camber line.
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Camber
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The maximum distance between the two lines is called the camber, which is a measure of the curvature of the airfoil (high camber means high curvature); the maximum distance between the upper and lower surfaces is called the thickness.
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Wingtips
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The ends of the wings.
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Wingspan
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The distance from one wingtip to the other.
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Planform
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The shape of the wing viewed from above. For most planforms, the chord length varies along the span.
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Dihedral angle
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The front view of airplane wings shows that the left and right airplane wings aren't truly horizontal, but instead meet at the angle called the dihedral angle.
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Roll stability
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Dihedral is built into the design for roll stability; a wing with some dihedral will naturall return to its original position if it encounters a slight displacement.
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Anhedral
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Highly maneuverable fighter planes don't have dihedral; wingtips that are lower than the roots (anhedral) give the aircraft a higher roll rate.
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The shape of the wing determine an airplanes ...
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speed, maneuverability and handling.
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3 basic wing types
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straight, sweep and delta
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Straight wings
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found on small, low-speed airplanes as well as gliders and sailplanes. These wings give the most efficient lift at low speeds, but are not very good for high-speed flight.
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Swept wing (either forward or back)
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The most common design for modern high-speed airplanes, the design creates less drag than straight-wing designs, but is somewhat more unstable at low speeds.
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A sharply swept wing ...
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delays the formation of shock waves as the airplane nears the speed of sound. How much sweep a wing design is given depends on the purpose for the airplane.
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Commercial jetliners
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has a moderate (wing) sweep, resulting in less drag while maintaining stability at lower speeds.
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High-speed aircraft (fighter planes)
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have wings with a greater sweep, which do not generate much lift during low-speed flight and require relatively high-speed takeoffs and landings.
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Delta wing
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looks like a large triangle, it has a high angle of sweep with a straight trailing edge. Airplanes with this type of wing design are designed to reach supersonic speeds and also land at high speeds.
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Landing gear
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provide the main support for the airplane when it is on the ground.
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Landing gear
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usually consists of 3 wheels or sets of wheels, but airplanes can also be equipped with skis for landing on snow and ice, or floats to land on water.
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Landing gear
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can either be retractable or nonretractable
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Retractable landing gear
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can be mechanically pulled up into a cavity designed for them, with a door or doors closeing over the opening to reduce drag and improve the airplan's performance.
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Nonretractable landing gear
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usually have fairings over their top half to reduce drag and improve the airplane's performance.
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The more wheels on an airplane means
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they support more weight
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Conventional landing gear (third wheel)
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or tailwheels, mounted under the tail of the airplane or nose. Designs with the third wheel under the nose (a nosewheel) are commonly called tricycle landing gear. In either case, they allow the airplane to be controlled during ground movement.
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Propellers and jets
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two main typed of fixed-wing aircraft propulsion systems
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Propeller (or prop)
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give thrust by the corkscrew action of one or more propellers with two or more blades each rotating very fast at the front of the engine, which pushes the air backward with the result that the airplane is "pushed" forward (Newton's 3rd law)
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Pitch
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the slant that the pilot can control just how much "pull', or thrust he wants the propeller to exert.
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Pusher prop
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planes that have the propeller on the back
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Powerplant of a propeller-driven plane
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is usually considered to include both the engine and the propeller
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Function of the engine
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turns the propeller, but it also generates electrical power, provides a vacuum source for some flight nstruments and provides a heat source for pilot and passengers in most small, single-engine planes.
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Propeller-driven airplanes
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have either a fixed-pitch or variable-pitch
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Fixed-pitch
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A fixed-pitch propeller's pitch has a blade angle that can't be changed by the pilot.
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Fixed-pitch
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The propeller is connected directly to the engine's crankshaft; engine power rotates the crankshaft as well as the propeller and the propeller converts the engine's rotary power into thrust.
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Variable-pitche propeller
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Also known as a constant-speed propeller, is more efficient than it's fixed-pitch propeller counterpart because the pilot can adjust the blade angle for the most efficient operation.
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Newton's 1st Law of Motion
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If there is no net force on an object, than it's velocity is constant. The object is either at rest (if it's velocity is equal to zero) or it moves with the constant speed in a single direction.
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Newton's 2nd Law of Motion
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The acceleration (a) of a body is parallel and directly proportional to the net force (f) actiong on the body, is in the direction of the netforce, and is inversely proportional to the mass (m) of the body. I.e.: f=ma
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Newton's 3rd Law of Motion
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When a first body exerts a force (f1) on a second body, the second body simultaneously exerts a force (f2). f2=f1 on the first body. This means that f1 and f2 are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
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Single-engine propeller-driven airplanes
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Usually have the engine attached to the front of the fuselage, covered by a cowling to steamline the airflow around the engive; it also helps cool the engine by ducting air around the cylinders.
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Multiengine planes
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whether propeller driven or jet, usually have the engines mounted under the wings in a nacelle
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Nancelle
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Surrounds the entire engine and performs the same functions as a cowling.
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Jet engines
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Work by forcing incoming air into a tube or cylinder where the air is compressed, mized with fuel, burned and pushed exhausted at high speed to generate thrust.
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Variations of jet engines
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turbojet, turbofan and ramject. These engines all operate by the same basic principles, but each has its own distinct advantages and disadvantages.
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Critical part of a jet engine's operation:
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compressing the incoming air
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How jet engines create thrust:
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Most jets employ a section of compressors, consisting of rotating blades that slow the incoming air to create high pressure. This compressed air is then forced into a combustion section, where it is mixed with fuel and burned. As the high-pressure gases are exhausted, they are passed through a turbine section with more rotating blades. In this region, the exhaust gases turn the turbine blades, which are connected by a shaft to the compressor blades at the fron of the engine. The exhaust turns the turbines that turn the compressors to bring in more air and keep the angine going. The combustion gases then continue to expand out though the nozzle, "pushing" backward to create thrust.
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Afterburner
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Turbojets and turbofans can be fitted with an afterburner, which is a tube placed between the turbine and the rear exhaust nozzle where additional fuel is added to the flow and ignited to provide increased thrust.
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Disadvantage to afterburners
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greatly increase fuel consumption and can only be used to short periods
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Empennage
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the technical name for the tail section of an airplane
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Empennage fixed surfaces
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the vertical and horizontal stabilizers
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Empennage moveable surfaces
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elevators, the rudder and any trim tabs.
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Elevators
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Are moveable control surfaces attached to the back or trailing edge of the horizontal stabilizers; they are used to move the nose of the airplane up or down during flight.
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Rudder
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Movable control surface attached to the back of the vertical stabilizer that is used to move the airplane's nose left and right during flight. The rudder is used in combination with the ailerons for turns while the airplane is flying. (some people incorrectly reffer to the vertical stabilizer as the rudder)
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Trim tabs
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Are small movable segments of the trailing edge of the rudder, elecator(s) and ailerons. Controlled by the pilot in the cockpit, they reduce control pressures and decrease the pilot's workload.
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Newtons 1st Law of Motion (or Inertia)
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Simple stated: a body at rest tends to remain at rest, and a body in motion tends to remain in motion (at the same speed and in the same direction) unless acted upon by an outside force.
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Inertia
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the property by which an object resists being accelerated in some different way from its current state. (force us what moves it)
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Newton's 2nd Law of Motion
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Simply stated: the greater the mass of the object, the greater the force needed to produce a particular acceleration.
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Newton's 3rd Law of Motion
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For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. i.e. when one object exerts a force on a second object, the second object exerts an equal and opposite force on the first object.
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Universal gravitation
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two objects attract each other with a force that is proportional to the product of their mass (i.e. their masses multiplied together) and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The attraction is known as gravity.
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Gravity
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Accounts for the weight of an object on Earth and usually measures the pull of the large body (the earth, in this case) in pounds or kilograms.
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Mass
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A constant that is unaffected by local gravity conditions.
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Weight
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A function of the planet's gravity.
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Mass and weight
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Regardless of the fact that an object can weigh 6 pounds on earth and 1 pound on the moon, ots mass remains the same. It will take the same amount of force in any othe those places to accelerate it the same amount.
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Four forces acting on an aircraft
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lift, weight (or gravity), thrust and drag
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Lift
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Pushes the aircraft up (i.e. away from the earth's surface)
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Weight
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Pulls the aircraft down toward the earth (or more precisely, toward the earth's center)
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Thrust
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Pushes the aircraft forward
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Drag
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Tends to slow the aircraft, pushing back on it as it moves forward.
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Flight envelope
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consists of the different combinations of lift, weight, thrust and drag, that allow the aircraft to be flown safely. "Flying outside the envelope" is usually slang for some unsage condition that caused problems in maintaining stability or even the ability to fly at all.
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Airfoil
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Uses the aerodynamic forces identified by Bernoulli's Principle to provide lift to the wings, and therefore the aircraft.
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Bernoulli's Principle
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As the velocity of a fluid increases, the pressure exerted by that fluid decreases. (i.e., the faster a fluid travels over a surface, the less time it has to exert pressure on any given part of that surface. Air is a fluid, not a liquid.
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Because the top surface of the wing has mmore camber (curvature) ...
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the air flows faster over the top of the wing than it does underneath.
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Upwash
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Oncoming airstream that is deflected upward and over the wing
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Trailing edge
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Where the airflow that came over the upper surface rejoins the lower surface first
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Downwash
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Downward airstream deflection as it passes over the wing and past the trailing edge
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Leading edge
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The part of the airfoil that meets the airflow first
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Stall
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Is caused by the separation of airflow from the wing's upper surface, resulting in a rapid decrease in lift- possbily to the extent of falling out of the sky.
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To recover from a stall or imminent stall:
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The pilot must restore the smooth airflow by decreasing the angle of attack below the stalling angle, allowing normal lift dynamics to resume.
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Weight
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The force produced by the mass of the airplane ineracting with Earth's gravitational field; it is the force that must be counteracted by lift to maintain flight.
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Different kinds of weight
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Basic, operating, gross, landing gross and zero fuel
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Basic Weight
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The weight of the basic aircraft plus weapons, unusuable fuel, oil, ballast, survival kits, oxygen, and any other internal or external equipment on board the aircraft that will not be disposed of during flight.
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Operating Weight
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The sum of basic weight and items such as crew, crew baggage, steward equipment, pylons and racks, emergency equipment, special mission fixed equipment, and all other nonexpendable items not included in basic weight.
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Gross Weight
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The total weight of an aircraft, including its contents and externally mounted items, at any time.
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Landing Gross Weight
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The weight of the aircraft, its contents and external items when the aircraft lands.
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Zero Fuel Weight (ZFW)
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The weight of the aircraft without any usable fuel.
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Profile drag (parasitic drag)
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Is experienced by all objects in an airflow, and is caused by the airplane pushing the air out of the way as it moves forward. (i.e. like putting your hand outside of a moving vehicle.)
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Induced drag
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The result of the production of lift. It is the part of the force produced by the wing that is parallel to the relative wind. Objects that create lift must also overcome this induced grad, also known as drag-to-drag-lift.
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Flight attitude
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Whenever an airplane changes its position in flight
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Axes
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imaginary lines running through the airplane's center of gravity.
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Axes of an airplane
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Can be thought of as imaginary axels around which the airplane turns, int he same way that a wheel rotates around its axel. At the point where all three axes intersect, each is at a 90-degree angle (a right angle) to the other two.
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Longitudinal axis
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The axis that runs lenghtwise through the fuselage from the nose to the tail.
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Lateral axis
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The axis that runs from wingtip to wingtip.
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Vertical axis
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The axis that passes verticall through the aircraft's center of gravity.
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Roll
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Movement around the airplane's longitudinal axis. (The airplane's motion around its longitudinal axis resembles the roll of a ship from side to side.)
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Yaw
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Movement around the airplane's vertical axis (a horizontal left and right movement of the airplane's nose.)
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Pitch
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Movement around an airplane's lateral axis
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Roll
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Controlled by the ailerons
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Pitch
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Controlled by the elevators
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Yaw
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Controlled by the rudder
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A flight control system has two ends to it:
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The end where the pilot makes a change to a control in the cokpit and the end where something on the outside of the aircraft changes and affects the airplane's performance (faster, slower, up, down, left, right, etc.)Mechanical, hydraulic, electronic and other means of connecting these two ends having the expected result occur reliably from a certain movement of the cockpit controls.
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2 types of flight control systems
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Primary and secondary
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Primary control systems
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Are needed to safely control an airplane during flight, including the ailerons, elevator/stabilator and rudder.
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Secondary control systems
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Such as wing flaps and trim control systems, improve the airplane's performance or relieve the pilot of having to deal with excessive control forces.
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The 3 main ways to control the aircraft while in flight in the cockpit
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the joystick or control wheel, the rudder pedals and the throttle(s) for the engine(s).
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The joystick controls:
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roll (movement around the longitudinal axis, one wing up and one wing down), pitch (movement around the lateral axis, nose up or nose down).
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The rudder pedals control:
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the yaw of an airplane, which is how much (or how little) the nose points to the left or right in a horizontal sense.
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Engine throttles
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are considered flight controls because they are the main way for the pilot to regulate how much thrust the engine is producing.
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Low airspeed controls usually feel soft and slugish, and the airplane responds slowly to the controls.
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At higher speeds, the controls feel firmer and the response quicker.
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Moving one or more of the 3 primary flight control surfaces changes:
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the airflow and pressure and pressure distribution over and around the airfoil (wings). These changes affect the lift and drag produced by the airfoil/control surface combination, which allows a pilot to control the airplane round its three axes of rotation.
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Ailerons
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Control the airplane's movement around the longitudinal axis, also known as roll.
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Ailerons are attached
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to the trailing edge of each wing
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Moving the joystick or control wheel to the right causes the right aileron
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moves (or deflects) upward while the left aileron moves downward. The upward deflection of the right aileron decreases the camber of that wing, causing a decrease in lift that makes the right wing drop.
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The same aerodynamics in reverse on the left cause that wing to rise because of increased lift. (ailerons)
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The combined effects cause the airplane to roll to the right.
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Rudder
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Controls the airplane's movement around its vertical axis, yaw.
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Moving the left or right rudder pedal causes the rudder to move:
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in the same direction as the depressed pedal, and to the same relative extent. When the rudder is deflected into the airflow, the airflow exerts a horizontal force in the opposite direction.
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By pushing the left (rudder) pedal, the rudder moves:
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left. This alters the airflow around the vertical stabilizer and rudder, creating a sideward force that moves the tail to the right and yaws the nose of the airplane to the left.
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Rudder effectiveness increases with:
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speed. Large deflections at low speeds and small deflections at high speeds are usually what's required.
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In propeller driven aircraft:
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Any slipstream (rearward-flowing air pushed back by the propeller) flowing over the rudder increases its effectiveness.
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Elevator
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Is a hinged control surface attached to the rear of the horizontal stabilizer. On most planes, the elevators are divided by the vertical stabilizer and rudder; however, on some designs, the elecators are far enough back so that they are not too separated surfaces but one, called a stabilator.
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The elevator controls the airplane's movement around:
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It's lateral axis, called pitch. Moving the joystick or control column to the rear, toward the pilot, causes the elecators to move (deflect) upward.
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The up-elevator position decreases:
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the camber of the horizontal tail surface, creating a downward aerodynamic force greater than the slight tail-down force normal in most designs during straight and level flight.
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CG
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Center gravity. The overall effect causes the tail to move downward and the nose to pitch up, rotating around the plane's CG. (elevators). Moving the joystick or control column forward has the opposite effect.
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All correctly executed turns are a coordinated combination of:
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The use of ailerons, rudder and elevators. Applying ailerson pressure on the stick left or right is needed to achieve the desired bank angle, while the pilot simultaneously applies pressure on the rudder pedal to counteract adverse yaw.
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Control surfaces are seldom used in isolation:
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Because aerodynamic forces seldom work in only one direction.
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When left or right stick is applied, causing an aileron deflection that raises one wing, the downward-deflected aileron not only produces more lift, but produces more drag.
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This drag causes the nose to yaw in the direction of the raised wing, called adverse yaw.Rudder movement in the opposite direction of the bank is used to compensate for adverse yaw.
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During a turn, the angle of attack:
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Must be increased by applying elevator pressure because more lift is required than during straight-and-level flight. The steeper the turn, the more back elevator pressure is needed,
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Angle of Attack
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The angle between the horizontal and the chord line of the airfoil.
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Secondary flight control systems consist of:
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Flaps, leading edge devices, spoilers and trim devices,
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Flaps
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The most common high-lift devices. These surfaces, which are attached to the trailing edge of the wing, increase both lift and drag for any given angle of attack.
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Flaps allow a compromise between:
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high cruising speed and low landing speed because they may be extended when needed and then retracted into the wing's structure when not needed.
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Leading edge devices
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High-lift devices can also be applied to the leading edge of the airfoil. The most common types are fixed slats, moveable slats and leading edge flaps.
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Spoilers
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On some airplanes, high-drag devices called spoilers are deployed from the wings to spoil the smooth airflow, reducing lift and increasing drag.
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Spoilers are used for roll control on some aircraft:
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One of the advantages being the elimination of adverse yaw.
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To turn right, the spoiler on the right wing is raised ...
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destroying some of the lift and creating more drag on the right. The right wing drops, and the airplane banks and yaws to the right.
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Deploying spoilers on both wings at the same time allows:
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the aircraft to descend without gaining speed.
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By destroying lift, spoilers transfer weight to the wheels, improving braking effectiveness:
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Spoilers are also deployed to help shorten the ground roll after landing.
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Trim systems
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Used to relieve the pilot of the need to maintain constant pressure on the flight controls.
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Trim systems usually consist of:
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small hinged devices attached to the trailing edge of one or more of the primary flight control surfaces. They help minimize a pilot's workload by aerodynamically assisting movement and positioning of the flight control surface to which they are attached.
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The most common trim system on small airplanes is:
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A single trim tab attached to the trailing edge of the elevator, usually manually operated by a small control wheel or a crank.
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The cockpit control includes:
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a tab position indicator; placing the trim control in nose-down position moves the tab to its full "up" position. With the tab up and into the airstream, the airflow over the horizontal tail surface forces the trailing edge of the elevator down. This causes the tail of the airplane to move up, and results in a nose-down pitch change.
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In spite of the opposite direction movement of the trim tab and the elevator:
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trim control is natural to a pilot.
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If you have to exert constant back pressure on the control column,
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the need for nose-up trim is indicated.
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The normal trim procedure is
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to continue trimming until the airplane is balanced and the nose-heavy or tail-heavy condition is no longer apparent.
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Pilots normally establish the desired power, pitch, attitude and configuration first, and then:
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trim the airplane to relieve control pressures that may exist for that flight condition.
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Any time power, pitch, attitude or configuration are changed,
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retrimming will normally be necessary to relieve the control pressures for the new flight condition.
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Flight instruments
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enable a pilot to operate an airplane with optimal performance and increased safety, especially when flying long distances or in inclement weather conditions.
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Altimeter
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Measures height above a particular air pressure level, and therefore gives the pilot information about his altitude above the ground.
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Air is denser at sea level than at higher altitudes, so:
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as altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases.
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The pressure altimeter is
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an anaeroid barometer that measures atmospheric pressure at the level where the altimeter is located, and presents an altitude in feet.
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The dial of a typical altimeter is graduated, with numerals arranged clockwise from 0 to 9.
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The shortest hand indicates altitude in tens of thousands of feet, the intermediate hand in thousands of feet and the longest hand in hundreds of feet.
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standard sea level barometric pressure is
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29.92 inches of mercury. The sea level free air temperature is standard (+15 degrees C or 59 degrees F)
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Altitude
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vertical distance above some point or level used as a reference. There are as many kinds of altitude as there are reference levels from which altitude is measured and each may be used for specific reasons. Pilots are mainly concerned with 5 types.
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Indicated altitude
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The uncorrected altitude read directly from the altimeter when it is set to the current altimeter setting.
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True altitude
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The vertical distance of the airplane above sea level; the actual altitude. if is often expressed as feet above mean sea level (MSL); airport, terrain and obstacle elecations on aeronautical chart are true altitudes.
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Absolute altitude
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The vertical distance of an airplane above the terrain or above ground level.
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Pressure altitude
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The vertical indicated when the altimeter setting window (barometric scale) is adjusted to 29.92. This is the altitude above the standard datum plane, which is theoretical level where air pressure (corrected to 15 degrees C) equals 29.92 inches of mercury. Pressure altitude is used to compute density altitude, true altitude, true airspeed, and other performance data.
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Density altitude
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This altitude is pressure altitude corrected for variations from standard temperature. When conditions are standard, pressure altitude and density altitude are the same. If the temperature is above standard, the density altitude is higher than pressure altitude. If the temperature is below standard, the density altitude is lower than pressure altitude. This is an important altitude because it is directly related to the airplane's performance.
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Hypoxia
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A condition caused by insufficient oxygen in the bloodstream (in this context, usually caused by unpressurized flight at too high an altitude). SYmptons are impaired reaction, confused thinking, poor judgemnt, fatigue, headaches, and sometimes euphoria. A prolonged condition can cause loss of consciousness and evenuall death. This is generall not an issue below 10,000 feet altitude above mean sea level.
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Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) or vertical velocity indicator
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indicates whether an airplane is climbing, descending, or in level flight.
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If properly calibrated, the VSI indicates zero in level flight.
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The rate of climb or descent is indicated in feet per minute.
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The VSI is capable of displaying 2 different types of information:
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1. trend information that shows an immediate indication of an increase or decrease in the airplane's rate of climb or descent. 2. Rate information that shows a stabilized rate of change in altitude.
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Trend
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The first indication that there is a change in the rate of climb.
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Lag
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The time from the initial change in the rate of climb until the VSI displays an accurate indication of the new rate.
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Some airplanes are equipped with an instantaneous vertical speed indicator (IVSI)
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which incorporates accelerometers to compensate for the lag in the typical VSI.
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Airspeed indicator
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A sensitive differential pressure gauge that measures and promptly shows the difference between pitot (impact) pressure and static pressure, the undistrubed atmospheric pressure at level flight.
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pitot pressure and static pressure will be equal when
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the airplane is parked on the ground in calm air.
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When the airplane moves through the air, the pressure on the pitot line becomes greater than the pressure in the static lines.
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This difference in pressure is registered by the airspeed pointer on the face of the instrument, which is calibrated in miles per hour, knots, or both.
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There are 4 airspeed types (ICE-T)
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1. I ndicated speed- measures air pressure reading from the pitot tube.
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2. Calibrated airspeed-
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airspeed calculated after accounting for aircraft mechanical and position errors (attitude).
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3. Equivalent airspeed-
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airspeed calculated after compensating for compression effects, usually only needed at speeds over 200 mph.
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4. True airspeed-
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airspeed calculated after accounting for temperature and atmospheric pressure changed.
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White arc
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This arc is commonly referred to as the flap operating range, since its lower limit represents the full flap stall speed and its upper limit provides the maximum flap speed. Approaches and landings are usually flown at speeds within the white arc.
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Lower limit of white arc (VSO)
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The stall speed or the minimum steady flight speed in the landing configuration. In small airplanes, this is the power-off stall speed at the maximum landing weight in the landing configuration (gear and flaps down).
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Upper limit of the white arc (VFE)
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The maximum speed with the flaps extended.
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Green arc
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Normal operating range of the airplane; most flying occurs within this range.
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Lower limit of green arc (VS1)
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The stall speed or minimum steady flight speed in a specified configuration; for most airplanes, this is the power-off stall speed at the maximum takeoff weight in the clean configuration (gear up if retractable and flaps up)
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Upper limit of green arc (VNO)
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The maximum structural cruising speed; do not exceed this speed except in smooth air.
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Yellow arc
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Caution range; fly within this range only in smooth air, and then only with caution.
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Red line (VNE)
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Never-exceed speed; operating above this speed is prohibited, because it may result in damage or structural failure.
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Airplanes use 2 types of turn indicators:
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The turn-and-slip indicator and the turn coordinator.
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The turn-and-slip indicatory only shows:
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the rate of turn in degrees per second (because of the way the gyro is mounted).
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Turn Coordinator
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Because the gyron on the turn coordinator is set at an angle, or canted, it can initially also show roll rate. Once the roll stabilizes, it indicates the rate of turn.
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Both turn indicator instruments indicate:
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turn direction and quality (coordination), and also serve as a backup source of bank information in the event an attitude indicator fails.
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Inclinometer
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Consists of liquid-filled curved tube with a ball inside. Coordination is achieved (turn indicators) by using this instrument.
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Inclinometer
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Shows airplane yaw, the side-toside movements of the airplane's nose.
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In the inclinometer during coordinated, straight and level flight
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; gravity causes the ball to rest in the lowest part of the tube, centered between the reference lines. Coordinated flight is maintained by keeping the ball centered. If the ball is not centered, it can be centered by using the rudder.
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To center the ball on the inclinometer,
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use the simple rule of "step on the ball" to remember which rudder pedal to press. Apply the rudder to the side where the ball is deflected.
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The ball in the tube of the inclinometer remains centered
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if aileron and rudder movements are coordinated during a turn. If aerodynamic forces are unbalanced, the ball moves away from the center of the tube.
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Attitude indicator
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With its miniture airplane and horizon bar, displays a picture of the attitude of the airplane. The relationship of the minature airplane to the horizon bar is the same as the relationship of the real airplane to the actual horizon. The instrument gives an instantaneous indication of even the smallest changes in attitude.
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The gyron in the attitude indicator is mounted rigidly on a horizontal plane.
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The horizon bar represents the true horizon and is connected to the gyro, remaining in the horizontal axis, indicating the attitude of the airplane relative to the true horizon.
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The attitude indicator is reliable and the most realistic flight nstrument on the instrument panel.
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What is shows are very close approximations of the actual attitude of the airplane.
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Magnetic compass
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Is usually the only direction-seeking instrument in the airplane and is simple in contruction. It has two magnetized steel needles fastened to a float, around which is mounted a compass card. The needles are parallel, with their north seeking ends pointing in the same direction. The compass card has letters for cardinal headings, and each 30-degree interval is represented by a number, the last zero of which is moitted. For example, 30 degrees appears as a 3 and 300 degrees appears as 30.
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Causes of errors of the magnetic compass
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The earth's magnetic fields lie roughly notyh and south, the magnetic poles don't exactly coincide with the geographic poles (which are used in the construction of aeronautical charts). Therefore, at most places on the earth's surface the direction-sensitive steel needles that seek the earth's magnetic field will not point to true noth, but instead to magnetic north. Furthermore, local magnetic field and mineral deposits and other conditions may distort the earth's magnetic field and cause additional errors.
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Heading indicator (directional gyro)
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is a mechanical (not magnetic) instrument that backs up and supplements the magnetic compass. Frequent magnetic compass errors make stright flight and precision turns to exact headings (directions) hard to accomplish, especially in turbulent air. A heading indicator is not affected by the forces that make the magnetic compass difficult to interpret precisely.
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Some heading indicatotd receive a magnetic north reference from a magnetic slaving transmitter, and generally need no adjustment.
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Heading indicators that don't have this automatic north-seeking capability are called "free" gyros, and require periodic adjustment.
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Vertical card compass
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A newer design of heading indicator that siginificantly reduces the inherent error of the older compass models. It consists of an azimuth on a rotating vertical card, and resembles a heading indicator with a fixed miniature airplane to accurately represent the airplane'd heading. The presentation is easy to read, and the pilot can see the complete 360 degree dial in relation to the airplane heading.
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There are four fundamental flight maneuvers on which all flying tasks are based:
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straight-and-level flight, turns, climbs, and descents. All controlled flight consists of one or more of these basic maneuvers.
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Straight-and-level flight
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is flight where the pilot maintains a constant heading and altitude. It is accomplished by making immediate, measured correction for deciations in direction and altitude from unintentional slight turns, descents, and climbs.
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An aircraft turns by banking the wings in the direction of the desired turn.
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The pilot chooses a specific bank angle and applies control pressire on the stick or control wheel to acieve it. Once the bank angle is established, the pilot continues to exert pressure to maintain the desired angle.
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All four primary controls are used in close coordination when making turns:
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- The ailerons bank the wings and so determine the rate of turn at any given airspeed.
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- The elevator
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moves the nose of the airplane up or down in relation to the pilot, and perpendicular to the wings. In doing so, it both sets the pitch attitude in the turn and "pulls" the nose of the airplane around the turn.
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The throttle
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controls the engine, which provides thrust that may be used for airspeed to tighten the turn.
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The rudder
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offsets any yaw effects developed by the other controls. The rudder does not turn the airplane, as many people believe.
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Briefly, turns can be divided into 3 classes:
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Shallow, medium and steep turns.
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Shallow turns:
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Are those in which the bank is so shallow )less than about 20 degrees) that the inherent lateral stability of the airplane acts to level the wings unless some aileron is applied to maintain bank.
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Medium turns:
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Are those resulting from a degree of bank at which the airplane remains at a constant bank (approx 20 degrees to 45 degrees).
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Steep turns
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Are those resulting from a degree of bank ( 45 degrees or more) at which the "over-banking tendency" of an airplane overcomes stability, and the bank increases unless aileron is applied to prevent it. Changing the direction of the wing's lift toward one side or the other causes the airplane to be pulled in that direction. The pilot does this by applying coordinated aileron and rudder to bank the airplane in the direction of the desired turn.
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The total lift force is acting perpendicular to the wings and to the earth:
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When an airplane is flying straight and level.
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As the airplane is banked into a turn,
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the lift then becomes the result of two components.
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Vertical lift component
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continuues to act perpendicular to the earth and oppose gravity.
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Horizontal lift component (centripetal force)
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Acts parallel to the earth surface and opposes inertia (apparent centrifugal force).
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The two lift components (vertical and horizontal)
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Act at right angles to each other, causing the resultant total lifting force to act perpendicular to the banked wing of the airplane. It is the horizontal lift component that actually turns the airplane: not the rudder.
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As a pilot applies aileron to bank the airplane,
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the lowered aileron (on the rising wing) produces a greater drag than the raised aileron (on the lowered wing). This increased aileron yaws the airplane toward the rising wing, or opposite to the direction of turn. To counteract this adverse yawing moment, the pilot must apply rudder pressure simultaneously with aileron in the desired direction to produce a coordinated turn.
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Climb attitude
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When an airplane enters a climb, it changes its flight path from level flight to an inclined plane or climb attitude.
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In a climb, weight no longer acts in a direction perpendicular to the flight path, but instead in a rearward direction.
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This causes an increase in total drag, requiring an increase in thrust (power) to balance the forces. An airplane can sustain a climb angle only when there is sufficient thrust to offset increased drag: therefore, a climb is limited by the thrust available.
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Normal climb
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Is preferred at an airspeed recommended by the airplane manufacturer, and is generally somewhat higher than the airplane's best rate of climb. The additional airspeed provides better engine cooling, easier control and better visibility over the nose.
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Normal climb is sometimes referred to as
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cruise climb
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Best rate of climb (Vy)
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Is performed at an airspeed where the most excess power is available over that required for level flight. This condition of climb will produce the most gain in altitude in the least amount of time (maximum rate of climb in feet per minute). The best rate of climb made at full allowable power is a maximum climb.
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Best angle of climb (Vx)
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Is performed at an airspeed that will produce the most altitude gain in a given distance. Best angle-of-climb airspeed (Vx) is considerably lower than best rate of climb (Vy), and is the airspeed where the most excess thrust is available over that required for level flight. The best angle of climb will result in a steeper climb, although the airplane will take longer to reach the same altitude than it would at its best rate of climb. The best angle of climb is used in such situations as clearing obstacles after takeoff.
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When an airplane starts a descent:
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It changes its flight path from level to an inclined plane.
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3 main categories of descents
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A partial power descent, a descent at minimum safe airspeed (MSA) and a glide.
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A partial power descent
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the normal method of losing altitude, often called cruise or enroute descent. The airplane manufacturer normally recommends a setting of airspeed and power that will result in a target descent rate of 400-500 fpm. The airspeed may differ anywhere from cruise speed to that used on the downwind leg of the landing pattern. The pilot should keep the desired airspeed, pitch attitude and power combination stead throughout the descent.
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Descent at minimum safe airspeed (MSA)
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a nose-high, power-assisted descent method mostly used for clearing obstacles during a landing approach to a short runway. The airspeed used for this type of approach is normally no more than 1.3 times the stall speed in the landing configuration (VSO). The MSA approach is characterized by a steeper-than-normal descent angle, along with the excess power available that would be needed to produce acceleration at low airspeed if "mushing" and/or an excessive descent rate occur.
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Glide
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A basic maneuver where the airplane loses altitude in a controlled manner with little or no engine power involved. Forward motion is maintained by gravity pulling the airplane along its down-sloping inclined path; the descent is controlled as the pilot balances the force of lift and gravity.
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Power and pitch
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The pilot must understand the efects of both power and elevator control as they work together during different flight conditions.
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Although there is a wide spectrum of combinations of conditions and settings, the overall rule of thumb for determining airspeed and altitude control runs something like this
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At any pitch attitude, the amount of power used will determine whether the airplane will climb, descend, or remain level at that altitude.
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In the majority of nose-down situations
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A descent is the only possible flight condition
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Through a a range of attitudes from only slightly nosedown to about 30 degrees nose-up,
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a typical light aircraft can be made to climb, descend, or remain level based on the power used. In about the lower third of this range, the airplane will descend at idle power without stalling.
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As pitch attitude is increased
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engine power is required to prevent a stall. As pitch attitude is increased, however, engine power is required to prevent a stall. Even more power will be required to maintain altitude , and uet more to climb.
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In a small plane, at a pitch attitude of about 30 degrees nose-up, it will take all available power just to maintain altitude.
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A slight increae in the steepness of the climb, of a slight decrease in power, will result in a descent (whether the pilot intended it or not); again, this isknown as "trying to fly outside the envelope." At that point, the slightest inducement will then further result in a stall.
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Rotary Wing Aircraft
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A helicopter creates lift by a rotary "wing". A helicopter produces lift by manipulating the rapidly rotating main rotor blades, chaning the angle at which they meet the air and subsequently the angle of attack.
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Torque control
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The disadvantage of rotary-wing aircraft, because the torque control by a tail rotor, which uses some of the engine's power. Torque control is the compensation for the helicopter fuselage's tendency to rotate in the opposide direction from the rotor; the tail rotor continuously pulls the tail back the other way to maintain stability.
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Helicopters in horizontal flight are subject to the same four forces as an airplane
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lift, weight (or gravity), thrust, and drag
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The thrust from a helicopter's rotors can be applied:
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vertically, as when its in a hover
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For a helicopter in stabilized horizontal flight,
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the force of lift equals weight and the force of thrust equals drag
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If thrust exceeds drag in a helicopter,
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than it increases its horizontal speed. If drag is greater than thrust, then the helicopter decreases its horizontal speed. If lift is greater than weight, then the helicopter climbs.If weigh is greater than lift, then the helicopter descends.
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Because of the helicopter's unique characteristics, horizontal flight is not limited to only the forward direction.
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The lift, weight, thrust and drag relationship applies to any direction that the helicopter is moving (forward, sideways, or backward).
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In a stabilized hover, the force of lift equals weight and the force of thrust equals drag.
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In addition, all four forces are acting vertically. If lift is greater than weight, the helicopter will climb, if weight is greater than lift, the helicopter will descend.
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Helicopters are very sensitive to pilot input and are therefore very responsive
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the pilot in command normally sits on the right in a heicopter, a opposed to the left-hand seat in an airplane. Only slight control pressures are needed to master the techniques of hovering and landing.
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Controlling a helicopter's flight path and position is a little more complex than a fixed-wing aircraft. The pilot has three major flight controls:
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The cyclic, whereby the pilot controls langitudinal and lateral movement with a joystick to his front center; the collective, which controls pitch by lifting or lowering the handle, as well as engine torque by means of throttle that the pilot rotates around the collective handles; and the directional control system where the pilot controls the tail rotor torque and how much or how little it is "pulling" or "pushing" the tail one way or the other.
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The Cyclic
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Controls the direction of the tilt of the main rotor. While the helicopter rotors are spinning, if you move the stick forward, the main rotor will tilt forward. If you move the stivk backward, the main rotor will tilt backward; move the cyclic to one side and it will tilt the main rotor disc to that side. This control changes the lift and thrust forces. The three axes of movement are still the same, and the terms used to describe movement around (or about, as it is sometimes called) any of these axes are the same as with fixed-wing craft.
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The Collective
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is a long aluminum tube mounted at an angle to the cockpit floor to the left of the pilot; it controls the angle of the main rotor blades. If you pull the collective up, the angle of the main rotor blades increases (the leading edge of the rotor blades will move higher than the trailing edge of the rotor blade). This control affects the lift and thrust forces also. Wrapped around the collective is a throttle control the pilot operates by turning around the tube of the collective.
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The tail rotor pedals
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at the pilot's feet, control the pitch of the tail rotor blades. To fly the helicopter, the pilot uses all of these controls in combination. By changing the lift and thrust of the main rotor with the cyclic and collective, the pilot can move the helicopter in any direction. Moving the cyclic forward moves the helicopter forward. Moving the cyclic to the left moves the helicopter forward and to the left. Moving the cyclic to the left and forward moves the helicopter forward and to the left. Lifting the collective up causes the helicopter to climb. Lowering the collective causes the helicopter to increase its forward speed and may result in a climb, depending on how much the collective is raised.
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The pilot uses pressure from his feet on the tail rotor pedals to control whether the nose yaws left or right
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; left pedal moves the nose to the left, and right pedal moves the nose to the right.
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If you increase the collective and the engine increases power (some helicopters have automatic engine controls that do this for you) to keep the RPMs to the main rotor, the torque force that's trying to make the cabin spin around will also increase.
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This requires more left pedal (or pedal opposite to the direction that torque is trying to spin the helicopter) to keep the nose of the helicopter in the same place. So, an increase in collective needs to have an equal increase in pressure on the appropriate tail rotor pedal.
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Transient torque
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Occurs in single-rotor helicopters when lateral (left or right) cyclic is applied. At the rear half of the rotor disk, downwash is greater than for the forward half of the rotor disk.
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For conventional American helicopters:
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where the main rotor turns counterclockwise when viewed from above, a left cyclic input will cause a temporary increase in torque and a right cyclic input will cause a temporary drop in torque.
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Autorotation
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The action of turning a rotor system by airflow rather than engine power, which would be needed in, for instance, an engine failure situation.
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Airflow up through the rotor system during a power-off descent provides:
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the energy to overcome blade drag, and turn the rotor, slowing the descent of the helicopter to a manageable level.
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The tail rotor is still important in autorotation because the pilot needs to have some control over the yaw axis (left and right).
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During autorotation the tail rotor still turns because it is connected to the main rotor via a transmission; as long as the main rotor is turning (and the transmission is functioning properly), the tail rotor will be turning too.
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Torque does not exist during an autorotation, but there is a little bit of :
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drag/friction from the main rotors' and tail rotors' transmissions that cause the helicopter to turn in the firection of the main rotor spin. This is controlled by input from the pilot through the tail rotor.
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Transitional lift
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The additional lift the helicopter gets when it flies out from its own downwash, which has a cushioning effect as long as the helicopter is low enough.
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Gyroscopic precession
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Applies to any spinning disc, means that a force applied to a spinning disc has its effect happen 90 degrees later in the direction and plane of rotation.
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Coriolis force (ice skater example)
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When an ice skater spins in a circle and her arms are out, they have a certain spin speed. If she pulls her arms in, the spin accelerates because the center of mass of the skater's arms is closer to the axis rotation. The same thing happens in a helicopter if you replace the skater's arms with rotor blades.
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Transverse flow effect:
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is when the air flowing over the rear portion of the main rotor disc is accelerated downward by the main rotor, which causes the rear portion to have a smaller angle of attack. This results in less lift to te rear portion of the rotor disc, but, because of gyroscopic precession, the result is felt 90 degrees later.
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A ramject engine consists of
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an inlet, a combustion zone, and a nozzle
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For a fixed-wing aircraft, lift is generated ____ to the direction of flight.
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perpendicular
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The angle formed by the chord of an airfoil or wing and the direction of the relative wind...
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angle of attack
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Pitot tubes furnish data to an insturment that is used by aircraft pilots in about the same...
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speedometer
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The part of an airplane that holds the cargo, fuel, and passengers-as well as providing a base...
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fuselage
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On a conventional fixed-wing aircraft, the _____ control(s) pitch and the _______ control(s)...
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horizontal stabilizers, vertical stabilizer
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________ are additional hinged rear sections mounted to the wing near the body that are deployed...
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flaps
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Which one of the following does not affect density altitude?
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Wind velocity
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The degree of movement of an aircraft around its longitudinal axis is known as
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bank
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The maneuver in which a rotary-wing aircraft (helicopter) is maintained in nearly motionless...
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hovering
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The ratio of the speed of an aircraft to the speed of sound in the air around it is the...
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Match number
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The acceleration experienced by the aircraft and its pilot in the direction perpendicular to...
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bank angle
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The flight envelope of an aircraft is
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the region of altitude and airspeed in which it can be operated
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The locus of points equidstant from the upper and lower surfaces of an airfoil is called the
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mean camber line
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The straight line joining the ends of the mean camber line is called the
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wing chord
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A(n) ___________ is the point at which the airflow over the wings ceases to be a smooth (laminar)...
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Aerodynamic stall
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Two basic types of drag are
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parasitic and peripheral
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An airfoil's efficiency, either a wing or a rotor blade, is _______ at high altitudes by the..
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decreased, lesser
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The degree of movement of an aircraft around its lateral axis is known as
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pitch
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When the flaps are extended, the camber of the wing is
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increased
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A helicopter's cyclic control is a mechancial linkage used to change the pitch of the main...
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at a selected point in its circular pathway
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When the rotor blades of a helicoptor are spinning fast enough in a clockwise direction to...
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torque
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Pulling back (toward the pilot) on the control column or joystick of a fixed-wing aircraft...
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pitch up
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Contra-rotating propellers, a complex way of applying the maximum power of a single pitson...
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rotating in opposite directions arranged one behind the other
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The abbreviation VTOL, applied to aircraft other than helicopters, means
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Vertical Take-Off and Landing
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Delta Wing aircraft have a wing in the form of a triangle, named after the Greek uppercase...
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horizontal stabilizer
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The Visual Approach SLope Indicator (VASI) is a system of lights designed to provide visual...
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red, white
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A coordinated turn (change of heading direction) includes both _________ of the airplane.
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roll and yaw
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____ is induced by use of a movable rudder controlled by _______ in the cockpit.
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Yaw, and rudder pedals
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Moving the control column or joystick to the left or right affects the ______ rather than indicating...
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rate of roll, angle to which the aircraft will roll.
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rate of roll, angle to which the aircraft will roll.
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positive air pressure below the wing's surface and negative air pressure above the wing's surface. The top of the wing is curved while the bottom is relatively flat. The air flowing over the top travels a little farther than the air flowing along the flat bottom. This means that the air on top must go faster. Hence, the pressure decreases, resulting in a lower pressure on top of the wing and a higher pressure below. The higher pressure then pushes (lifts) the wing up toward the lower pressure area.
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Operation of modern airplanes is dependent upon the use of instruments. These instrument dials, displayed in the airplane's cockpit, are referred to as "flight instruments" or "engine instruments." Which one of the following is not a "flight instrument"?
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tachometer
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Which statement is true regarding the forces acting on an aircraft in a steady flight condition (no change in speed or flightpath)?
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Lift equals weight and thrust equals drag.In a steady flight condition, the always present forces that oppose each other are also equal to each other. That is, lift equals weight and thrust equals drag.
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A flashing green air traffic control signal directed to an aircraft on the surface is a signal that the pilot
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Is cleared to taxi
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What is the difference between a steady red and a flashing red light signal from the tower to an aircraft approaching to land?
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A steady red light signals to continue circling and a flashing red light signals that the airport is unsafe for landing.
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The propeller blades are curved on one side and flat on the other side to
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Produce thrust.The propeller blades, just like a wing, are curved on one side and straight on the other side. As the propeller is rotated by the engine, forces similar to those on the wing "lift" in a forward direction and produce thrust.
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When in the down (extended) position, wingflaps provide
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Greater lift and more drag. When in the downward (extended) position, the wingflaps pivot downward from the hinged points. This in effect increases the wing camber and angle of attack, thereby providing greater lift and more drag so that the airplane can descend or climb at a steeper angle or a slower airspeed.
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What makes an airplane turn?
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horizontal component of lift. The lift acting upward and opposing weight is called the vertical lift component. The lift acting horizontally and opposing inertia or centrifugal force is called the horizontal lift component. The horizontal lift component is the sideward force that forces the airplane from straight flight and causes it to turn.
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What is one advantage of an airplane said to be inherently stable?
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The airplane will require less effort to control. Stability is the inherent ability of a body, after its equilibrium is disturbed, to develop forces or moments that tend to return the body to its original position. The ability of the airplane to return, of its own accord, to its original condition of flight after it has been disturbed by some outside force (such as turbulent air) makes the airplane easier to fly and requires less effort to control.
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If the elevator tabs on a plane are lowered, the plane will tend to
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Nose up. The elevator trim tab is a small auxiliary control surface hinged at the trailing edge of the elevators. The elevator trim tab acts on the elevators which in turn act upon the entire airplane. A downward deflection of the trim tab will force the elevator upward which will force the tail down and the nose up.
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The pilot always advances the throttle during a
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Climb.The thrust required to maintain straight and level flight at a given airspeed is not sufficient to maintain the same airspeed in a climb. Climbing flight takes more power than straight and level flight. Consequently, the engine power control must be advanced to a higher power setting.
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The pilot of an airplane can best detect the approach of a stall by the
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Ineffectiveness of the ailerons and elevator.The feeling of control pressures is very important in recognizing the approach of a stall. As speed is reduced, the "live" resistance to pressures on the controls becomes progressively less. Pressures exerted on the controls tend to become movements of the control surfaces, and the lag between those movements and the response of the airplane becomes greater until in a complete stall all controls can be moved with almost no resistance and with little immediate effect on the airplane.
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It is ordinarily desirable to provide an unusually long flight strip at municipal airports for the take-off of
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Heavily loaded ships in still air. Heavily loaded ships require a longer ground roll and consequently much more space is required to develop the minimum lift necessary for takeoff. Similarly, takeoff in still air precludes a takeoff as nearly into the wind as possible to reduce ground roll. Accordingly, municipal airports have found it desirable to provide an unusually long flight strip to cope with such adverse takeoff factors.
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What does the X symbol on the runway mean?
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Runway symbol X is a runway marker signifying that the runway is closed.
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