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84 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What are carbohydrates made up of?
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*Carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen
*CH2O- Literally the "hydrate of a carbon" |
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Simple carbohydrates include what?
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*Monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose)
*Disaccharides (sucrose, maltose, lactose) |
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What monosaccharides make up sucrose, maltose, and lactose?
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*Sucrose: Glucose & fructose
*Maltose: Glucose & glucose *Lactose: Glucose & galactose |
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Complex carbohydrates include what?
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*Oligosaccharides (trisaccharides are most common)
*Polysaccharides (glycogen is an example!) |
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Transcription occurs in the _______.
Translation occurs in the ________. |
*Transcription- Cell nucleus
*Translation- Cytoplasm |
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Reactions that occur most often in the cell and have the same enzyme catalyzing the reactions in both directions are _________
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*Reversible reactions
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Reactions that require a different enzyme to reverse it are ________. These reactions may also result in allosteric regulators.
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*Irreversible reactions.
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What is the immediate source of energy for the body?
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ATP
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NADH2 produces how many ATP?
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3 ATP
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FADH2 produces how many ATP?
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2 ATP
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Exothermic reactions are energy ______ reactions; While endothermic reactions are energy _______ reactions.
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*Exo are energy-yielding or energy-releasing; -G
*Endo are energy-consuming or energy-requiring; +G |
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How long is the digestive tract?
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16 feet!
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What are the four layered walls of the digestive tract, and give brief description.
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*MUCOSA: epithelial cells and brush border
*SUBMUCOSA: anchor *MUSCULARIS EXTERNA: longitudinal/circular muscles *SEROSA: Outer layer |
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The small intestine is made up of what?
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The duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
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The large intestine is made up of what?
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Ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, and sigmoid
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Parietal cells are stomach epithelial cells that secrete what two things?
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*HCl
*Intrinsic factor |
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Why is HCl needed in the body?
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*to denature protein
*help kill bad organisms and sterilize food *help activate pepsinogen into the active form, pepsin |
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Gastric chief cells are involved with what?
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The release of pepsinogen (and gastric lipase and chymosin). It works in conjunction with the parietal cells that release gastric acid- Together they convert pepsinogen into pepsin (the active form).
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The stomach is the primary start for _________ digestion.
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Protein
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What are the four "accessory organs" (separate from the digestive system)?
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The liver, gall bladder, pancreas, and salivary glands
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Which accessory organ makes bile, and which stores bile?
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*Makes bile- liver
*Stores bile- gall bladder |
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The pancreas involves what three components?
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*Acnir cells
*Duct cells *Endocrine portion (alpha & beta cells) |
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Crypt of Lieberkuhn is located where; what does it do?
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*Bottom of the musoca
*Site of the production of epithelial cells (intestinal wall is made of epithelial) |
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What is the longitudinal muscle that is involved in peristalsis; considered “contracted”?
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Tenia colon
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What are the pouches on the colon wall; considered “non-contracted”?
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Haustra
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Regulatory peptides & hormones include (6):
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Gastrin, CCK, secretin, gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP), somatostatin, & motilin.
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Neuropeptides include (4):
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VIP (vasoactive intestinal peptide), gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP), neurotensin, & substance P
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What enzyme is involved in the mouth?
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Alpha-amylase (salivary)
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What enzyme is involved in the stomach?
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Pepsinogen (HCl activates pepsinogen to make pepsin)
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What enzymes are involved in the pancreas?
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*Pancreatic amylase (starch into maltose)
*Lipase (fat-related) *Proteases (protein-related) |
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What enzymes are involved in the small intestine?
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*Disaccharidases (break down lactose, maltose, and sucrose)
*Aminopeptidases (break down di & tri peptide bonds in amino acids) |
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Which disaccharide is formed primarily from the partial hydrolysis of starch; And with what enzyme is this accomplished?
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Maltose; alpha-amylase
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The layer of carbohydrate on the surface of the cell involved in both intracellular communication and recognition is known as the _________.
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Glycocalyx
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What is the name of the outermost wall (tunic) of the digestive tract?
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Serosa
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Beta-oxidation takes place in what cellular organelle?
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Mitochondria
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Ribosome synthesis occurs in what part of the cell?
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Nucleolus
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The glycolytic reaction in which 1,3 bis-P-glycerate is converted to 3-P-glycerate, and ADP is turned into ATP is what kind of phosphorylation?
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Substrate-level phosphorylation
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Reversible or irreversible reactions occur most often in the cell?
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Reversible
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In this reaction, the same enzyme catalyzes in both directions.
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Reversible
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In this reaction, a different enzyme is required to reverse the reaction.
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Irreversible
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____________ impact on pathways elsewhere to produce non-equilibrium reactions.
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Allosteric regulators
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The class of enzymes that usually involve the transfer of hydrogens and electrons, and includes the Electron Transport Chain is:
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Oxidoreductases
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The class of enzymes that involve the transfer of carbon, nitrogen, or phosphate-containing groups (involves protein metabolism, amino transferases, and enzyme of ALT -> liver problems) is:
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Transferases
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What makes an amino acid essential?
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If the body can't make the amino acid in the body, it is considered "essential". You must get those from your diet.
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The class of enzymes involving using water to break carbon-carbon bonds (protein metabolism) is:
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Hydrolases
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The class of enzymes involving the cleaving of C-C, C-N, and C-S bonds is:
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Lyases
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The class of enzymes involving the "interconversion" of atoms within the molecule is:
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Isomerases
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The class of enzymes involving the formation of bonds between carbon and other atoms (oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen) is:
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Ligases
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The crypt of Lieberkuhn is the site of what?
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Production of epithelial cells (that make up the intestinal wall)
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What is the rate limiting enzyme in glycolysis?
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PFK
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What slows PFK?
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1. PFK is allosterically inhibited by ATP, so glycolysis is slowed when cellular ATP concentrations are high.
2. High citrate levels! |
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What enzyme is used to "unzip" the DNA strand?
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DNA polymerase
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Alpha cells secrete the hormone __________.
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Glucagon
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Beta cells secrete the hormone ___________.
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Insulin
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Gastrin is made in the _____ cells of the stomach.
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"G"
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Cholecystokinin (CCK) is made by the "I" cells of the __________ ___________ ___________.
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Proximal small intestine
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The only source of energy for red blood cells is:
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Glucose
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What cellular structure acts as the "anchor" during cell division?
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Centriole
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What is the most superior sphincter in the body?
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Lower Esophageal Sphincter (LES)
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Where is the hexose monophosphate shunt located & what are the two important functions?
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*Located in the cytoplasm
*Ribose & lipid synthesis |
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T & C are ___________.
A & G are ____________. |
T & C are pyridines.
A & G are purines. |
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What is the approximate volume of the stomach when full?
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1-1.5 Liters
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What is the plasmic membrane's role in phagocytosis?
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Phagocytosis is the cellular process of engulfing solid particles by the plasmic/cell membrane to form an internal phagosome (which is a cellular compartment in which pathogenic microorganisms can be killed and digested).
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What is the importance of the anomeric carbon and the highest chiral center in configurations?
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It is important where it bonds. The anomeric carbons and highest chiral centers interact with each other to make the bond with oxygen.
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Sphincter of Oddi's role:
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Controls secretion from pancreas, gall bladder, and liver.
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In simplest terms, glycolysis is:
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The pathway by which glucose is degraded into two 3-carbons, pyruvate.
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Anaerobic glycolysis is the sole source of energy for erythrocytes because the red blood cell does not contain ____________.
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Mitochondria
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Under aerobic conditions, pyruvate can be transported into the mitochondria and participate in the TCA cycle, in which it becomes completely oxidized to _____ and ______.
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CO2 and H2O
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In cells that lack mitochondria, the pathway of glycolysis is the sole provider of ______ by the mechanism of _____________ phosphorylation.
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ATP; substrate-level phosphorylation
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What is the importance of capillary verus lacteal transport?
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*Capillary (vascular)- transports water-soluble nutrients
*Lacteal (lymph)- transports fat-soluble nutrients |
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Brush border enzymes include (5):
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Isomaltase: breakdown of starch into glucose
Maltase: breakdown of starch into glucose Sucrase: Sucrose to glucose Lactase: Lactose to glucose Maltase: Maltose to glucose |
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Where do the fat-soluble nutrients in the lymphatic transport go?
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The thoracic duct then to subclavian vein into the blood!
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Where do the water-soluble nutrients in the vascular transport go?
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The liver!
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When whey amylase works on amylopectin what is generated?
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Isomaltose
Maltose Maltotriose |
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What are possible products of CHO metabolism of the lumen before crossing over the brush border?
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Glucose
Galactose Fructose |
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After glucose and galactose are absorbed by active transport, what transporter is involved?
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SGLT 1 (sodium glucose transporter)
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After fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion, what transporter is involved?
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GLUT 5 (Non-insulin dependent)
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After the absorbed sugars enter portal blood and go to the liver, what transporter is involved?
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GLUT 2 (Non-insulin dependent)
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Glucose entry into the muscle and adipose tissue is insulin-dependent and requires facilitated transport by __________.
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GLUT 4
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What enzymes phosphorylate alpha-D-glucose to glucose 6-phosphate?
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Either glucokinase or hexokinase
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Where is glucokinase used?
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Liver/pancreas
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Where is hexokinase used?
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Muscle, adipose tissue, and brain
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What hormone induces the enzymes in glycogenesis?
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Insulin
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What enzymes does insulin induce?
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Glucokinase, hexokinase, and glycogen synthase
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