*** A&p Ch. 23 Cont'd: Respiratory System- Anatomy

Front 1

Where does the acid come from as the lipids are digested?

- free fatty acids

Back 1

.

Front 2

Pancreatic lipase DIGESTS triglycerides (fats) into monoglycerides and free fatty acids.

Back 2

.

Front 3

Emulsification: separation of large aggregates of fat into smaller droplets, primary function of bile salts. DOES NOT DIGEST.

Back 3

.

Front 4

Salivary amylase: DIGESTS polysaccharides into simple sugars (mono + di- saccarides).

Back 4

.

Front 5

Protein digestion by Pepsin.

What are the tubes incubated at 37° C?

- body temp. Favorable for enzyme activity

Back 5

.

Front 6

Benedict's solution: standard test for prescence of SIMPLE SUGAR. Will turn red, orange, green or yellow flocks that settles).

Back 6

.

Front 7

Salivary amylase: DIGESTS polysaccharides into simple sugars (mono + di- saccarides).

Back 7

.

Front 8

Maltose: disaccharide broken down by polysaccharides. Salivary amylase into maltose.

Back 8

.

Front 9

Lugol's iodine: standard test for STARCH, will turn dark blue in prescence of starch.

Back 9

.

Front 10

Pepsin: proteolytic enzyme secreted in an inactive form (pepsinogen) by the gastric glands.

Back 10

.

Front 11

Alveoli

Back 11

150 million alveoli in each lung, providing about 70m2 of surface area for gas exchange.

Cells of the alveolus:

- squamous type I alveolar cells: thin, broad cells that allow for rapid gas diffusion between alveolus and bloodstream. Cover 95% of alveolus surface area.

- great type II alveolar cells: round to cuboidal cells that cover the remaining 5% of alveolar surface. Repair alveolar epithelium when squamous type I cells are damaged. Secrete pulmonary surfactant.

- alveolar macrophages (dust cells): most numerous of all cells in the lung. Wander the lumen and the connective tissue between alveoli. Keep alveoli free from debris by phagocytizing dust particles. *100 million dust cells perish each day as their swallowed and digested with their load of debris.

Front 12

What is the major function of the respiratory system?

Back 12

- Major function= Respiration.

- also functions in: Olfaction and speech.

Supply body with O2 for cellular respiration; dispose of CO2, a waste product of cellular respiration.

- its 4 processes involve both respiratory and circulatory systems.

Front 13

What are the 4 processes of respiration? Which are respiratory system and which are circulatory system?

Back 13

1. Pulmonary ventilation: (breathing): movement of air into and out of the lungs. - respiratory system.

2. External respiration: exchange of O2 and CO2 between lungs and blood.

- respiratory system.

3. Transport of O2 and CO2 in blood.

- circulatory system.

4. Internal respiration: exchange of O2 and CO2 between systemic blood vessels and tissues.

- circulatory system.

Front 14

Conducting division of the respiratory system and respiratory division of the respiratory system.

Back 14

Conducting division:

- those passages the serve only for airflow

- no gas exchange

- nostrils through major bronchioles

Includes the upper respiratory tract: in head and neck (nose through larynx) and the lower respiratory tract: organs of the thorax (larynx then trachea through lungs)

Respiratory division:

Consists of alveoli and other gas exchange regions.

Front 15

What are the principal organs on the respiratory system? Which are upper respiratory and which are lower respiratory?

Back 15

Upper respiratory:

- nose and nasal cavity

- paranasal sinuses

- pharynx

Lower respiratory:

- larynx

- trachea

- bronchi and branches (bronchial tree)

- lungs and alveoli

- pleura

Front 16

Picture of locations of organs

Back 16

Front 17

Picture of the upper respiratory tract

Back 17

Front 18

Describe the features of the upper respiratory system organs

Back 18

Nose (2 regions: external nose and nasal cavity): Nose= only external portion of the respiratory system, includes the nostrils (nares). The nasal cavity is divided by nasal septum.

Paranasal sinuses: airfilled cavities in cranial bones surrounding nasal cavity, form ring around nasal cavities. Located in frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid and maxillary bones.

Pharynx: muscular tube from base of skull to C6. Composed of skeletal muscle. Passageway connecting nasal cavity to larynx and oral cavity to esophagus (3 subdivisions: nasopharynx, oropharynx, larygnopharynx) includes tonsils.

Front 19

Describe the details of the nose features

Back 19

Nose (External nose and nasal cavity): EXTERNAL NOSE formed by: nasal and frontal bones superiorly- form bridge and root, maxillary bones laterally, and plates of hyaline cartilage inferiorly. Areas include: root, bridge and apex.

- Includes the nostrils (nares).

NASAL CAVITY: divided by nasal septum (vomer bone and ethmoid bone)

- posterior nasal apertures (choanae): opening where nasal cavity turns into nasopharynx.

- roof: formed by ethmoid and sphenoid bones.

- floor: formed by hard palate (bone) and soft palate (muscle).

- nasal vestibule: nasal cavity superior to nostrils. Lined with vibrissae (hairs) that filter coarse particles from inspired air.

* Rest of nasal cavity lined with mucous membranes. Respiratory epithelium lines rest of nasal cavity except vestibule.

- olfactory mucosa: contains olfactory epithelium. lines superior region of nasal cavity and contains olfactory epithelium.

- respiratory mucosa: pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium that contains goblet cells. Contain lysozyme and defensins. Cilia move contaminated mucous posteriorly to throat.

Nasal conchae: mucosa covered projections. 3 sections: superior, middle and inferior conchae. Functions: during inhalation: filter, heat and moisten air. During exhalation: reclaim heat and moisture.

Nasal meatus: groove inferior to each concha. Shape helps to increase mucosal area and enhance air turbulence.

Front 20

Picture of nasal cavity

Back 20

Front 21

List the functions of the organs in the upper respiratory system.

Back 21

Nose (external nose and nasal cavity): Produces mucus, filters, warms/ moistens/filters and cleans incoming air, resonance chamber for speech, houses olfactory receptors.

Paranasal sinuses: form ring around nasal cavities. Located in frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid and maxillary bones. lighten skull, also may warm, moisten and filter incoming air.

Pharynx: passageway for air and food, facilitates exposure of immune system to inhaled antigens (in tonsils)

Front 22

Picture of pharynx

Back 22

Front 23

Describe the features of the lower respiratory system organs

Back 23

Larynx: connects pharynx to trachea. Opening (glottis) can be closed by epiglottis or vocal folds. Houses vocal cords (true vocal cords).

Trachea: flexible tube running from larynx and dividing into 2 main bronchi. Contain C shaped cartilage rings that are incomplete.

Bronchial tree: airway passages undergo 23 orders of branching. Branching referred to as bronchial tree. right and left main bronchi which subdivide within the lungs to form lobar and segmental bronchi and bronchioles.

Alveoli: microscopic chambers at termini of bronchial tree. Special alveolar cells produce surfactant.

Lungs: composed primarily of alveoli and respiratory passages. Stroma- elastic connective tissue allowing lungs to recoil during expiration.

Pleurae: serous membranes. Parietal pleura lines thoracic cavity, visceral pleura covers external lung surfaces.

Front 24

List the functions of the organs in the lower respiratory system.

Back 24

Larynx: (voice box) provides patient airway passageway, routes air and food into proper channels preventing it from entering lower respiratory tract, voice production- houses vocal folds.

Trachea: air passageway, cleans, warms and moistens incoming air.

Bronchial tree: air passageways connecting trachea with alveoli, cleans, warms and moistens incoming air.

Alveoli: main sites of gas exchange, surfactant: reduces surface tension, helps prevent lung collapse.

Lungs: house respiratory passages smaller than the main bronchi. Pleurae: produce lubricating fluid and compartmentalize lungs

Front 25

What is rhinitis?

Back 25

Inflammation of nasal mucosa. Continuous with mucosa of respiratory tract, so infections spread from nose to throat to chest. Can also spread to tear ducts and paranasal sinuses causing blockage of sinus passageways.

Front 26

Describe the 3 subdivisions of the pharynx

Back 26

NASOPHARYNX: air passageway posterior to nasal cavity. Lining contains psuedostratified columnar epithelium. Soft palate and uvula close nasopharynx during swallowing.

- pharyngeal tonsils (adenoids) located on posterior wall.

- pharyngotympanic tubes (auditory tubes) drain and equalize pressure in middle ear and open into lateral walls.

OROPHARYNX: passageway for food amd air from level of soft palate to epiglottis. Lining consists of stratified squamous epithelium.

- isthmus of fauces: opening to oral cavity.

- palatine tonsils: located in lateral walls of fauces.

- lingual tonsils: located on posterior surface of tongue.

LARYNGOPHARYNX: passageway for food and air. Posterior to upright epiglottis. Extends to larynx where it is continuous with esophagus. Lined with stratified squamous epithelium.

Front 27

Picture of pharynx, larynx and upper trachea

Back 27

Front 28

What is pharyngitis?

Back 28

Infected swollen adenoids can block air passage in nasopharynx, making it necessary to breathe through the mouth. As a result, air is not properly moistened, warmed or filtered before reaching the lungs. Speech and sleep may be disturbed.

Front 29

What are the 2 zones that the lower respiratory system consists of?

Back 29

Conducting zone: conduits that transport gas to and from gas exchange sites. Includes all other respiratory structures. Cleanses, warms and humidifies air.

Conducting zone structures:

- Trachea, divides to form right and left main (primary) bronchi.

- Each main bronchus then branches into lobar (secondary) bronchi. 3 lobes on the right and 2 on the left.

- Each lobar bronchus branches into segmental (tertiary) bronchi.

- Branches become smaller and smaller- bronchioles (>1mm) and the smaller is terminal bronchioles (>0.5mm): final branches of conducting division.

* changes occur: support structures change, epithelium type changes to cuboidal, amount of smooth muscle increases, have no mucous glands or goblet cells.

Conducting zone structures give rise to:

Respiratory zone: microscopic structures. begins where terminal bronchioles feed into respiratory bronchioles, which lead to alveolar ducts and finally into alveolar sacs (saccules) which contain clusters of alveoli. site of actual gas exchange.

Front 30

Picture of lower respiratory tract

Back 30

Front 31

Describe the larynx

Back 31

The voice box, extends from 3rd to 6th cervical vertebra and attaches to hyoid bone.

- opens into laryngopharynx and is continuous with trachea.

3 functions:

1. Provides patent airway

2. Routes air and food into proper channels

3. Voice production (houses vocal folds) vocal ligaments: form core of vocal folds (true vocal cords) glottis: opening between vocal folds. Folds vibrate to produce sound as air rushes up from lungs. Vestibular folds: (false vocal cords) no part in sound production, helps close glottis during swallowing.

* sphincter functions of the larynx: vocal folds may act as sphincter to prevent air passage. Ex. Valsalvas maneuver: glottis closes to prevent exhalation, abdominal muscles contact, intra-abdominal pressure rises, helps to empty rectum or stabilizes trunk during heavy lifting.

Framework consist of 9 hyaline cartilages (except for epiglottis), connected by membranes and ligaments.

1. Thyroid cartilage: large, shield shaped that contains laryngeal prominence (Adam's apple).

2. Cricoid cartilage: ring shaped. Paired arytenoid cartilages, paired cuneiform cartilages and paired corniculate cartilages.

3. (9) epiglottis: consists of elastic cartilage (not hyaline), covers laryngeal inlet during swallowing, covered in taste bud containing mucosa.

Front 32

Picture of the larynx

Back 32

Front 33

Picture of larynx

Back 33

Front 34

What is laryngitis?

Back 34

Inflammation of the vocal folds that causes the vocal folds to swell, interfering with vibrations.

Most caused by viral infections, or overuse of voice, very dry air, bacterial infections, tumors or inhalation of irritating chemicals.

Front 35

Describe the details of the trachea

Back 35

Trachea: (windpipe) extends from larynx into mediastinum, where it divides into 2 main bronchi. Very flexible.

Wall composed of 3 layers:

1. Mucosa: ciliated pseudostratified epithelium with goblet cells.

2. Submucosa: connective tissue with seromucous glands supported by 16-20 C SHAPED CARTILAGE RINGS THAT PREVENT COLLAPSE OF TRACHEA.

3. Adventitia: outermost layer made of connective tissue.

Trachealis: consists of smooth muscle fibers that connect posterior parts of cartilage rings. Contracts during coughing to expel mucus.

Carina: last tracheal cartilage that is expanded and found at point where trachea branches into 2 MAIN BRONCHI. MUCOSA OF CARINA HIGHLY SENSITIVE. violent coughing will be triggered if any foreign object makes contact with it.

Front 36

Heimlich maneuver

Back 36

Procedure in which air in victims lungs is used to "pop out" or expel an obstructing peice of food.

Front 37

Lungs are perfused by 2 circulations

Back 37

Pulmonary circulation:

- PULMONARY ARTERIES: deliver systemic venous blood from heart to lungs for oxygenation. Branch to feed into pulmonary capillary networks.

- PULMONARY VEINS: carry oxygenated blood from respiratory zones back to heart. Low pressure, high volume system. Lung capillary endothelium contains many enzymes that act on different substances in blood. Ex. Angiotensin-converting enzyme activates blood pressure hormone.

Bronchial circulation:

- BRONCHIAL ARTERIES: provide oxygenated blood to lung tissue. Arise from aorta and enter lungs at hilum. Part of systemic circulation, so are high in pressure, low in volume. Supply all lung tissue except alveoli. Bronchial veins anastomose with pulmonary veins (pulmonary veins carry most venous blood back to heart)

Front 38

Gross anatomy of the lungs

Back 38

Lungs occupy all of the thoracic cavity except for mediastinum.

Root: site of vascular and bronchial attachment to mediastinum.

Costal surface: anterior, lateral, and posterior surfaces.

Apex: superior tip, deep to clavicle.

Base: inferior surface that rests on diaphram.

Hilum: found on mediastinal surface, is site for entry/exit of blood vessels, bronchi, lymphatic vessels and nerves.

Left lung: separated into superior and inferior lobes by oblique fissure. Includes cardiac notch: concavity for heart to fit into.

Right lung: separated into superior, middle and inferior lobes by horizontal fissure and oblique fissure.

Bronchopulmonary segments: each lobe further divided, which can be individually removed.

Lobules: smallest subdivisions visible to naked eye, served by bronchioles and their branches.

* lungs are mostly composed of alveoli, the rest consists of stroma: elastic connective tissue (makes lungs very elastic and spongy).

Front 39

Describe Pleurae

Back 39

Thin double layered serosa; divides thoracic cavity into 2 pleural compartments and mediastinum.

Parietal pleura: on thoracic wall, superior face of diaphram, around heart, between lungs.

Visceral pleura: on external lung surface.

Pleural fluid fills slitlike pleural cavity, provides lubrication and surface tension- assists in expansion and recoil

Front 40

Innervation of the lungs

Back 40

Lungs are innervated by parasympathetic and sympathetic motor fibers, as well as visceral sensory fibers.

Nerves enter through pulmonary plexus on lung root (run along bronchial trees and blood vessels).

- parasympathetic fibers cause BRONCHOCONSTRICTION whereas sympathetic fibers cause BRONCHODILATION.

Front 41

Other fluids that may accumulate in pleural cavity

Back 41

Blood: leaked from damaged blood vessels.

Blood filtrate: watery fluid that oozes from lung capillaries when left sided heart failure occurs.

Pleural effusion: fluid accumulation in pleural cavity.

Pneumothorax/hemothorax: filling the lung cavity by air of by blood via an opening in the chest (stab wound, etc) collapses the lung because of pressures in and out.

Front 42

Define pleurisy

Back 42

Inflammation of pleurae that often results from pneumonia. Results in friction and stabbing pain with each breath.

Front 43

Respiratory membrane

Back 43

Blood air barrier that consists of alveolar and capillary walls along with their fused basement membranes. (No energy required!). Very thin, allows gas exchange across membrane by simple diffusion.

- ALVEOLAR WALLS consist of: single layer of squamous epithelium (type I alveolar cells), and scattered cuboidal type II alveolar cells that secrete surfactant and antimicrobial proteins.

- other features of alveoli: surrounded by fine elastic fibers and pulmonary capillaries. Alveolar pores connect adjacent alveoli. Equalize air pressure, provide alternate routes. Alveolar macrophages keep alveolar surfaces sterile. * 2 million dead macrophages/hour carried to throat and swallowed.

Front 44

Describe Alveoli

Back 44

150 million alveoli in each lung, providing about 70m2 of surface area for gas exchange.

Cells of the alveolus:

- squamous type I alveolar cells: thin, broad cells that allow for rapid gas diffusion between alveolus and bloodstream. Cover 95% of alveolus surface area.

- great type II alveolar cells: round to cuboidal cells that cover the remaining 5% of alveolar surface. Repair alveolar epithelium when squamous type I cells are damaged. Secrete pulmonary surfactant.

- alveolar macrophages (dust cells): most numerous of all cells in the lung. Wander the lumen and the connective tissue between alveoli. Keep alveoli free from debris by phagocytizing dust particles. *100 million dust cells perish each day as their swallowed and digested with their load of debris.