Research Methods Final Exam

Front 1

What are the unscientific Methods?

Back 1

Tenacity, intuition, authority, rational, empirical

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Describe Problem ID

Back 2

research question, independent and dependent variables

Front 3

Desribe how to gather, analyze and interpret data.

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Gather - Internal and External Validity
Internal - how true are the results, control of external influence
External - inference to outside world
Analyze and Interpret - stats (descriptive, correlation, inferentail), support or reject hypothesis, compare to literature, intergration into theory

Front 4

what are the 5 characteristics of the scientific method?

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systematic, logical, empirical, reductive, replicable

Front 5

Describe Postpositivism

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determination, reductionism, empirical observation and measurement, theory verification

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Describe Constructivism

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Understanding, multiple participant meanings, social and historical construction, theory generation, inductive and/or deductive

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Describe advocacy/participatory

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political, empowerment issue-oriented, collaborative, change oriented

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Describe pragmatism

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consequences of actions, problem-centered, pluralistic, real-world practice oriented

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What is Critical Theory?

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empowering humans to overcome constraints

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List strategies of inquiry of quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research.

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quantitative - experimental and non-experimental
qualitative - narratives, phenomenologies, ethnographies, grounded theory, case studies
Mixed Methods - Sequential Concurrent, Transformative

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Basic vs. Applied Research

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Basic - discover new knowledge and development of theory
Applied - solution to immediate practical problem

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Ethical Issues to anticipate in Data Collection (name 5)

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do not put participants at risk, gain access to sites, address issues of confidentiality, respect vulnerable populations, obtain informed consent from participants, obtain IRB approvals

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Ethics of Authorship

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only one important author, data collectors are not authors, major professor is a co-author,

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Copyright Ethics

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journals retain copyright, books give copyright to the author, copyright is assumed granted in educational settings

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Examples of internally imposed Sanctions

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freeze/reduce/lose job, loss of institution money and privieges, faculty are responsible for students

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Examples of Externally imposed sanctions

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revocation of prior publications, release of information to agencies, professions, referral to legal system for further actions

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Necessities of Informed Consent

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protection of subject, explanations of procedures, risks and benefits, free to withdraw at any time

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Animal subject

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may be incapacitated or sacrificed

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IRB?

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Institutional review board - national research act (1974), safety regulations for human subjects, policy went into effect (1991)

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Describe the Human Subject Violation in the Tuskegee Study

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wouldn't treat syphillis victims with penicillin and this lead to death and congenital contraction

Front 21

Terminology For Sampling: define N and n

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N= number of cases in the sampling frame
n= number of cases in the sample

Front 22

What is a simple random sample and what is its objective?

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it is a subset of individuals chosen randomly from a general population
its objective is to select "n" units out of "N" such that each number of "N" has an equal chance of being selected

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What is stratified random sampling?

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dividing your population into homogeneous subgroups and taking and then taking a simple random sample from each subgroup

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What is systematic random sampling?

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divide n/N to get interval size (k) and then randomly select an integer between 1 to k and take every kth unit

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What is Cluster random sampling?

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divide population into clusters, randomly sample clusters and measure all units within sampled clusters

Front 26

What must be considered for equipment (instrumentation)?

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validity and reliability, model of instrument, city and state of make, manufacturers name

Front 27

What is a pilot study?

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a good one is worth 1000 hours
try and fail - learn from mistakes
discover problems
check equipment

Front 28

In research diagrams what does "x" and "o" represent

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x - exposure, effects are measured
o - observation or measure recorded using an instrument

Front 29

What are threats to validity in a quantitative study?

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Internal - changes to instruments, participants noticing placebo effect, maturation of participants
External - inaccurate inferences, drawing conclusions beyond sample, limited power to detect results, inadequate measure

Front 30

What is the difference between a quasi experiment and a true experiment

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participants aren't randomly assigned in a quasi experiment

Front 31

Goals of qualitative research?

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understand experiences, develop understanding/meaning - exploratory research, variables unknown

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Narrative

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study of an individual's experiences as told to the researcher

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Phenomenology

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describes the meaning of the lived experiences for individuals about a phenomenon

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grounded theory

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generate a theory that is closely related to the context of the phenomenon being studied

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ethnography

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a descripition and interpretation of a cultural or social group or system involving prolonged observation

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case study

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exploration of a case over time with in-depth data collection

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types of interviews?

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conversational, semi-structured, structured

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types of qualitative data?

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observation, interviews, audio-visual, field notes, documents

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What are the three defining attributes of Participatory action research?

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shared ownership, community-based analysis of social problems, orientation towards action

Front 40

what are the 5 phases of the PAR process?

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building the picture, data gathering, data analysis, communication, act - resolution of research problem, plan action at various levels

Front 41

what is central tendency?

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a single score taht represents all scores for a group of individuals?

Front 42

what is the mean?

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most common measure of central tendency, the average, sum of all scores divided by the number of scores

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What is the median?

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the number occurring at the midpoint of the series

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what is the mode?

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the most frequently occurring number

Front 45

what is on the y vs. x graph of the normal distribution?

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frequency of scores vs. scores on variables of interest

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types of symmetry?

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negatively skewed - max to the right Mean<median<mode, normal, positively skewed mean>median>mode

Front 47

types of amplitude?

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playkurtic, normal and leptokurtic (higher)

Front 48

Describe variance

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spread of scores based on the squared deviation of each score from the mean, can't be negative, noted as s^2, very stable because it takes every score into account

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What is standard Deviation?

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indication of the variablity of scores from the mean, size gives a sense of the curve, square root of variance, "s"

Front 50

what is the standard error of the mean?

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the standard deviation of the sampling distribution of the mean

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what are the 2 kinds of t-tests?

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independent samples, and correlated/dependent

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Describe independent sample t-tests

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each sample has N-1 degrees of freedom, the sampling distribution is the differences between sample means, there is a standard error, eg. gender differences on %body fat

Front 53

what is simple analysis of variance?

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determines whether significant differences exist among the means of 3 or more sets of independent data

Front 54

what is wrong with using multiple t-test?

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accumulation of the error rate, require more time and effort, should used ANOVA

Front 55

what is ANOVA called analysis of variance?

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partitions of total variance into components, and compares variability with groups and between groups

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What is the difference between one-way and two-way anovas/t-tests?

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one-way - tests a direction, e.g testing alt. hypothesis
two-way - doesn't test direction, allows you to test for either approach

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What is correlation?

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it measures the strength of the relationship between two variables (bivariate)

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what are the variables X and Y referred to as?

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X - predictor variable
Y - criterion variable

Front 59

what is the pearson product-moment correlation?

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assumes X and Y are normally distributed and are interval or ratio scale scores, it describes the strength of the linear relationship between two variables

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what is the spearman rank-order correlation?

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used for ordinal scale data, or interval or ratio scale data that deviate substantially from normality

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what is the difference positive and negative correlation?

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positive - variables linearly increase
negative - inverse relationship

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what is pearson "r" independent of?

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number of scores, size of scores, dispersion of scores

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How to determine significance.

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must determine degrees of freedom - Npairs - 2, Npairs - number of pairs of xy scores,
probability

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what does p value mean

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represents probability that the finding represents a value that is not random by chance

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homeoscedasticity

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strenght of relationship between X and Y should be similar from one range of X to another

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What can outliers do to correlations

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inflate or deflate them

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what is truncated variance?

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restricting the range of either or both variables, so the degree to which the variables can covary is restricted

Front 68

what does r^2 represent?

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the coefficient of determination - the shared variance between variables which can be compared with other r^2 scores as ratios

Front 69

what is R and when do you use it?

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it is regression and you use it when you want to predict something

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what does the standard error of estimate do

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it quantifies the error that is likely to be made by predicting one variable from another

Front 71

relationship between reliability and validity

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a test can be reliable without being valid, but to be valid it must be reliable

Front 72

Describe reliability

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the degree to which a test provides a consistent measure of a variable and to which repeated measurments of the same variable are reproducible under the same conditions

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equation for observed score?

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true score + error score

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How to calculate reliabilty

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proportion of observed score variance that is true score variance, usually want r greater than or equal to 0.8

Front 75

what are the two types of reliability?

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Interclass - consistency across measurement types, based on pearson correlations
Intraclass - consistency among items (cronbach's alpha coefficient)

Front 76

Types of interclass reliability.

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test-retest - the extent to which the same test yields the same results
equivalence - exact same questionnaire
split-half - change the order of questions

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what is the standard error of measurement?

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the degree to which an observed score fluctuates as a result of errors of measurement

Front 78

What is Objectivity?

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the degree to which different observers assign the same score, accuracy in a scoring test, aka interrater reliability, usually quantified with correlation coefficients

Front 79

What are the two types of objectivity?

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Intrajudge - consistency in scoring when a test user scores the same test two or more times
Interjudge - consistency between two or more independent judgements of the same performance

Front 80

Quantitative research

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Systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships. This data is LIMITED. Number data.

Front 81

Qualitative research

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Goal is to gather an in-depth understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. Investigates the why and how of decision making. Ex- Performance, OPEN-ENDED (are there common themes that emerge?), interviews transcripts--> put data into categories (themes).

Front 82

Different types of qualitative research

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Ethnographic, Phenomenological, grounded theory, case study

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Ethnographic

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Study that describes and interprets a culture or social group system. Researcher becomes immersed in the day-to-day lives of the people being studied or uses extensive interviews of the group to determine what they say about their culture or social condition.

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Phenomenological

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Study of lived experiences by individuals who have experienced a phenomenon. Ex- kids that have a learning disorder.

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Grounded theory

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Study which tries to generate a theory of a particular phenomenon. Interviews of people observations in the natural environment, and theoretical propositions are developed. Grounded in existing information facts revision of a study.

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Case study

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Investigation in which a "case" (person, event, activity, or individuals) are studied extensively. Ex- medical cases... Looking at particular clinical cases.

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Four basic ways of collecting data for qualitative study

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Observations, interviews, documents, visual materials.

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Observations

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researcher makes notes about behaviors/events and field notes obtained in the natural environment (commonly used with ethnographic studies)

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Interviews

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Researcher asks a series of standard questions to participants (commonly used with phenomenological and grounded theory studies)

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Documents

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Journals that people produce.

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Visual materials

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data from photos, videotapes or drawings.

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Mixed research

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Based on both quantitative and qualitative research.

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Qualitative: The purpose of the study was to determine the perceptions and reactions of lower and middle income home owners in Chicago to homeless individuals in that city.

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Quantitative: The purpose of the study was to determine the difference between the perceptions and reactions of lower and middle income homeowners to homeless individuals in Chicago.

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Quantitative: The purpose of the study was to determine if there were significant differences in the amount of money wagered at 3 different gaming tables (roulette, BJ, poker) at a Las Vegas casino across a 6 month period.

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Qualitative: The purpose of the study was to determine what factors that contribute to a gamblers choice between roulette, BJ, and poker at a Las Vegas casino.

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Three types of research design?

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Experimental, casual comparative, correlational

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Experimental research design

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allows for a true test of the difference based on cause/effect relationship. Researcher has complete control over cause because they can randomly select and assign subjects to one of two groups.

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Casual Comparative research design

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Group assignment and membership is pre-determined by classification of participants (males, females, lang. dis., etc.). Can randomly select, but not randomly assign.

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Correlational research design

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Use to examine relationships between 2 variables.