Public Speaking Exam 2

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CATALOGUE

definition and sample entry (6)

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Catalogue—a listing of all the books, periodicals, and other resources owned by a library.

• Author
• Title
• Publisher
• Description
• Location
• Call Number—a number used in libraries to classify books and periodicals and to indicate where they can be found on the shelves
• Status

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REFERENCE WORKS (4)

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a work that synthesizes a large amount of related information for easy access by researchers
• Encyclopedias
• Yearbooks
• Quotation books
• Biographical aids

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Newspaper and Periodical Database

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a research aid that catalogues articles from a large number of magazines, journals, and newspapers

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Abstract

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a summary of a magazine or journal article, written by someone other than the original author

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3 Evaluation criteria for Internet Documents

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Authorship

Sponsorship

Recency

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What should you do before an interview?

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Define its purpose

Decide whom you are going to interview

Prepare interview questions

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3 Kinds of Supporting Materials

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Examples

Statistics

Testimony

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Examples (3)

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A specific case used to illustrate or preprint a group of people, ideas, conditions, experiences, or the like.

Brief example—a specific case referred to in passing to illustrate a point
Extended example—a story, narrative or anecdote developed at some length to illustrate a point

Hypothetical example—an example that describes an imaginary or fictitious situation

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Statistics (3)

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Numerical Data

Mean- average value of a group of numbers

Median- middle number in a group of numbers arranged highest to lowest

Mode- the number that occurs most frequently in a group of numbers

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Testimony (2)

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Expert Testimony- people recognized in their fields

Peer testimony- ordinary people with first hand experience or insight on a topic

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Direct Quotation vs. Paraphrase

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Direct quotation- testimony presented word for word. Most effective when they are (1) brief and (2) particularly eloquent.

Paraphrase- to restate or summarize a source's ideas in ones own words. Most effective when (1) the wording of a quotation is obscure or cumbersome and (2) when a quotation is longer than two-three sentences [audiences tune out long quotations/interrupts flow of ideas]

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Quoting out of context

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quoting a statement in such a way as to distort its meaning by removing the statement from the words and phrasing surrounding it

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Information needed when citing sources

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• The book, magazine, newspaper, or Web document you are citing
• The author or sponsoring organization of the document
• The author’s qualifications with regard to the topic
• The date on which the document was published, posted, or updated

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Strategic Organization

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putting a speech together in a particular way to achieve a particular result with a particular audience

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Main Points

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• Specific Purpose
• Central Idea
• Main Points—the major points developed in the body of a speech. Most speeches contain two to five main points

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5 Basic Patterns of Organizations

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1. Chronological Order—a method of speech organization in which the main points follow a time pattern
a. May narrate a series of events in the sequence in which they happened
2. Spatial Order—a method of speech organization in which the main points follow a directional pattern
a. Follow a directional pattern→that mean the main points proceed from top to bottom, left to right, front to back, inside to outside, east to west
3. Causal Order—a method of speech organization in which the main points show a cause-effect relationship
a. Two main points
i. One dealing with the causes of an event
ii. The other dealing with its effects
4. Problem-Solution Order—a method of speech organization in which the first main point deals with the existence of a problem and the second main point presents a solution to the problem
5. Topical Order—a method of speech organization in which the main points divide the topic into logical and consistent subtopics
a. Subtopics become main points

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Connective

Definition and 4 types

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a word or phrase that connects the ideas of a speech and indicates the relationships among them

• Transition—a word or phrase that indicates when a speaker has finished one thought and is moving on to another
• Internal Preview—a statement in the body of the speech that lets the audience know what the speaker is going to discuss next
• Internal Summary—a statement in the body of the speech that summarizes the speaker’s preceding point or points
• Signposts—a very brief statement that indicates where a speaker is in the speech or that focuses attention on key ideas

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4 Reasons for an Introduction

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Get Attention and Interest

Reveal a topic

Establish credibility and goodwill

preview the body of the speech

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Get attention and interest

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relate the topic to the audience

state the importance of your topic

startle the audience/arouse curiosity

question the audience

begin with quotation

tell a story

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rhetorical question

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a question that the audience answers mentally in their heads instead of out loud

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Credibility & Goodwill

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Credibility- the audiences perception on whether or not the speaker is qualified to speak on the topic

Goodwill- the audiences perception on whether the audience has the best interests of the audience in mind

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preview statement

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a statement in the introduction that identifies the main points to be discussed in the speech

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2 Reasons for Conclusion

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Signal the end of the speech- the climax

Reinforce the central idea- summarize, reference intro (cyclical), end with quotation, make a dramatic statement

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two types of ways to signal the ending of the speech with your voice

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crescendo ending- a conclusion in which the speech builds to a zenith of power/intensity

dissolve ending- generates emotional appeal by fading step by step to a dramatic final statement

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Persuasion

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the process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people’s beliefs or actions.

• When you speak to persuade, you act as an advocate
• Your job is to get listeners to agree with you and to act on that belief
• Your goal may be to defend an idea, to refute an opponent, to sell a program, or to inspire people to action

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Mental Dialogue with the Audience

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the mental give-and-take between the speaker and listener during a persuasive speech

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Target Audience

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the portion of the whole audience that the speaker most wants to persuade

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questions of fact

definition and org

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a question about the truth or falsity of an assertion

speeches about these should have specific purpose, central idea, and main points

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2 kinds of Questions of Fact speeches

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Nonpartisan—speaker acts as a lecturer or a teacher. The aim is to give information as impartially as possible, not to argue for a particular point of view.

Partisan—speaker acts as an advocate. The aim is not to be impartial, but to present one view of the facts as persuasively as possible. The speaker may mention competing views of the facts, but only to refute them

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Questions of Value

definition and org

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a question about the worth, rightness, morality, and so forth of an idea or action

speeches are almost always organized topically. Most common approach is to devote your first main point to (1) establishing the standards for your value judgment and your second main point to (2) applying those standards to the subject of your speech

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Analyzing Questions of Value speeches

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you must justify your claim. The first step is to define what you mean by an “ideal form of land transportation.” In other words, you must establish your standards for an “ideal form of land transportation.”

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Questions of Policy

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a question about whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken.

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Types of Questions of Policy speeches

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• Speeches to gain passive agreement—a persuasive speech in which the speaker’s goal is to convince the audience that a given policy is desirable without encouraging the audience to take action in support of the policy
• Speeches to gain immediate action—a persuasive speech in which the speaker’s goal is to convince the audience to take action in support of a given policy.

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Analyzing Questions of Policy (3)

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Need—the first basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: Is there a serious problem or need that requires a change from current policy?
o Burden of proof—the obligation facing a persuasive speaker to prove that a change from a current policy is necessary

Plan—the second basic issue in analyzing question of policy: if there is a problem with current policy, does the speaker have a plan to solve the problem?

Practicality—the third basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: Will the speaker’s plan solve the problem? Will it create new and more serious problems?

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4 Policy Speeches Patterns

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Problem- Solution Order

Problem-Cause-Solution Order

Comparative Advantages Order

Monroe's Motivated Sequence

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Problem Solution Order

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a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point deals with the existence of a problem and the second main point present a solution to the problem

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Problem Cause Solution Order

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a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point identifies a problem, the second main point analyzes the causes of the problem, and the third main point presents a solution to the problem
a. The first identifying a problem, the second analyzing the causes of the problem, and the third presenting a solution to the problem

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Comparative Advantages Order

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a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which each main point explains why a speaker’s solution to a problem is preferable to other proposed solutions

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Monroe's Motivated Sequence

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a method of organizing persuasive speeches that seek immediate action. The five steps of the motivated sequences are attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action

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Monroe's Motivated Sequence

5 Steps Defined

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1. Attention—gain the attention of your audience
2. Need—make audience feel a need for change
3. Satisfaction—having aroused a sense of need, you satisfy it by providing a solution to the problem
4. Visualization—having given your plan, you intensify desire for it by visualizing its benefits. The key to this step is using vivid imagery to show your listeners how they will profit from your policy
5. Action—once the audience is convinced that your policy is beneficial, you are ready to call for action

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Ethos/Credibility (2)

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need credibility to persuade speaker

Credibility: the audience’s perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic.

Competence—how an audience regards a speaker’s intelligence, expertise, and knowledge of the subject.

Character—how an audience regards a speaker’s sincerity, trustworthiness, and concern for the well-being of the audience

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3 kinds of credibility

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Initial credibility—the credibility of a speaker before she or he starts to speak

Derived credibility—the credibility of a speaker produced by everything she or he says and does during the speech.

Terminal credibility—the credibility of a speaker at the end of the speech.

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ways to enhance credibility

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Explain your competence

Establish common ground with your audience
o Creating a common ground—a technique in which a speaker connects himself or herself with the values, attitudes, or experiences of the audience

Deliver your speeches fluently, expressively, and with conviction

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4 tips for using evidence

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Specific Evidence
o No matter what kind of evidence you employ—statistics, examples, or testimony—it will be more persuasive if you state it in specific rather than general terms

Novel Evidence
o Evidence is more likely to be persuasive if it is new to the audience

Evidence from Credible Sources
o Listeners find evidence from competent, credible sources more persuasive than evidence from less qualified sources

Make the point of your evidence clear
o Use evidence to prove a point
o Logos—the name used by Aristotle for the logical appeal of a speaker.

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two major elements of logos

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evidence and reasoning

reasoning = the process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence

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Types of Reasoning

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• Reasoning from specific instances—reasoning that moves from particular facts to a general conclusion

• Reasoning from principle—moves from general principle to specific conclusion; opposite of reasoning from specific instances

• Causal Reasoning—reasoning that seeks to establish the relationship between causes and effects

• Analogical Reasoning—reasoning in which a speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for the first case is also true for second.

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Hasty Generalization

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a fallacy in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence

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False Cause

post hoc ergo procter hoc

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a fallacy in which a speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second.

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invalid analogy

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an analogy in which the two causes being compared are not essentially alike

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bandwagon

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a fallacy which assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore, good, correct, or desirable. often used politically (everyone is voting for this person, you should too)

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red herring

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a fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion

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ad hominem

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a fallacy that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute

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either/or aka false dichotomy

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a fallacy that forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist

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slippery slope

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a fallacy which assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented

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appeal to tradition

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a fallacy which assumes that something old is automatically better than something new

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appeal to novelty

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a fallacy which assumes that something new is automatically better than something old

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argumentum ad ignoratum

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if it its not right, it must be wrong. if you can't prove its true, it must be false and vice versa. sets up a false dichotomy.

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argumentum ad vericundium

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appeal to authority. assuming most people in an authoritative position tell the truth. believe it based on who said it.

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pooh pooh fallacy

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ridicule the argument. say the argument is so ridiculous it shouldn't even be considered

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straw man argument

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build up someone else's argument so its false and then tear it down. create a false representation of the opponents argument and then tear it down.

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appeal to popular approval

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everyone is doing it, you should too. often used in advertising

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pathos, types (6)

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pathos- emotional appeal

• Fear
• Compassion
• Pride
• Anger
• Guilt
• Reverence

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how to generate emotional appeal

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• Use emotional language
• Develop vivid examples
• Speak with sincerity and conviction

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Attitude (3 components)

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1. cognitive- thoughts, perception, reasoning

2. affective- the feelings you have about the beliefs you hold, emotional

3. behavioral- how you act based on the attitudes that you have

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6 characteristics of every attitude

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Intensity, Centrality, Salience, Direction, Stability, Clarity (IDCCSS)

1. Intensity- can vary, you might care a lot or a little. Usually involves a judgment. Behavior is a good indicator
2. Centrality- most important, the level of importance
3. Salient- saliency is the situation that you are experiencing makes the attitude salient, does the attitude fit the situation. Ex: if you knew you were in deep water w/ sharks, your attitude of being scared/wanting to get out would be salient. Attitude becomes salient when the circumstances that you find yourself in makes the attitude salient.
4. direction- for or against, positive or negative
5. stability- the longer you hold the attitude the more stable it becomes
6. clarity- very strong in favor, very strong against. How clear is your attitude

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2 routes of persuasion

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central route of persuasion- making arguments that are focused on logic and evidence. Like pouring concrete, letting it set, then it last for a long period of time. The strongest, have the most sustainability. These are better

the peripheral route of persuasion- emotional appeals. Like a match, strike then they flare up then go out. Appearance might influence for a while but not very long.

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2 most common persuasive strategies

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1. foot in the door strategy- ask for a small request, and then escalate the request once they’ve agreed to the original request

2. door in the face strategy- ask for an outrageous request, knowing that your asking for too much, and then to look reasonable, de-escalate the request so that you look reasonable.
***Be careful not to look manipulative

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When to use One Sided arguments (4)

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1. When members of the audience are favorably disposed towards topic just give them one side

2. When members of the audience are poorly educated, just give them one side

3. When the audience is required to make a public commitment at the end of the presentation (vote, etc.) give them one side.

4. When comprehension of your conclusion is important, just give them one side

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When to use Two Sided arguments (3)

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1. When the audience is well educated

2. When the audience initially disagrees with the speaker’s position

3. When the audience will be exposed to later counter persuasion

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syllogism

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3 step argument. Major premise, minor premise, conclusion

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Deductive Argument (2)

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Deductive- goes from general to specific. All men or mortal, Socrates is a man, Socrates is mortal
• Argument from sign- if you see these things, you can reach this conclusion. Also called argument by observation. If you went by a house and you saw that the lights were on and there was music and a lot of people, you would conclude that there was a party going on.
• Cause to Effect- a direct causal relation between A and B. if you smoke for 60 years, you will probably get lung cancer. Nations that build up their artillery have a greater chance of going to war.

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Inductive Argument (2)

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Going from the specific to the general. Take one particular thing and from that thing extrapolate to reach a generalized conclusion.

• argument from example- generalization

• argument from analogy- football is like war
literal – compare 2 things from the same class
figurative – compare 2 things from different classes