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195 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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Categories of Abused Drugs |
Narcotics Sedatives Stimulants Hallucinogens Cannabis Alcohol |
6 |
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Narcotics |
Tolerance: Rapid Risk of Physical Dependence: High Risk of Psychological Dependence: High Fatal Overdose Potential: High Health Risks: Infectious diseases Accidents Immune suppression |
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Sedatives |
Tolerance: Rapid Risk of Physical Dependence: High Risk of Psychological Dependence: High Fatal Overdose Potential: High Health Risks: - Accidents |
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Stimulants |
Tolerance: Rapid Risk of Physical Dependence: Moderate Risk of Psychological Dependence: High Fatal Overdose Potential: Moderate to High Health Risks: - Sleep problems - Malnutrition - Nasal damage - Hypertensionrespiratory disease - Stroke - Liver disease - Heart attack |
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Hallucinogens |
Tolerance: Gradual Risk of Physical Dependence: None Risk of Psychological Dependence: Very Low Fatal Overdose Potential: None Very Low Health Risks: - Accidents |
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Cannabis |
Tolerance: Gradual Risk of Physical Dependence: None Risk of Psychological Dependence: Low to Moderate Fatal Overdose Potential: Very Low Health Risks: - Accidents - Lung cancer - Respiratory disease - Pulmonary disease |
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Alcohol |
Tolerance: Gradual Risk of Physical Dependence: Moderate Risk of Psychological Dependence: Moderate Fatal Overdose Potential: Low to High Health Risks: - Accidents - Liver disease - Malnutrition - Brain damage - Neurological disorders - Heart disease - Stroke - Hypertension - Ulcers - Cancer - Birth defects |
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William James says that consciousness is… |
…a continually changing stream of mental activity. |
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Processes we have intentional control over are: |
Controlled Processes |
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Automatic Processes occur: |
Without our intention. |
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Four bands of brain waves are: |
- Beta - Alpha - Theta - Delta |
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Brain activity is measured by… |
…an EEG. |
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Periodic fluctuation in physiological functioning are… |
…biological rhythms. |
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The cycle of sleep and wakefulness is influenced by... |
…circadian rhythms |
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What does exposure to light while sleeping do? |
It resets biological clocks by affecting the activity of the suprachiasmatic nucleus and the pineal gland. |
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What is one reason for jet lag? |
Being out of sync with your circadian rhythms. |
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When participating in a sleep experiment you are hooked up to: |
- EEG - EOG - EMG - Heart/Respiration/Pulse/Body Temp Monitor |
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5 Stages of Sleep are: |
- Drowsy - Stage 1 - SleepStage 2 - SleepSlow-Wave Sleep (Stage 3&4) - REM Sleep |
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Drowsy: |
Alpha waves prominent |
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Stage 1 Sleep: |
- Theta waves prominent - 1-7 minutes - Breathing and heart rate slow - Muscle tension and body temperature decrease - Hypnic jerks (brief muscular contractions) |
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Stage 2 Sleep: |
- Sleep spindles (bursts of higher-frequency brain waves) - Mixed EEG activity - 10-25 minutes - Muscle tension, body temp, heart rate, respiration rate continue to decrease (through stage 3&4 as well) |
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Slow-Wave Sleep (Stage 3&4) |
- High-amplitude, low-frequency delta waves become prominent in EEG recordings - 30 minutes - Declines during adulthood |
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Rapid Eye Movements (REM) |
- Stage before cycle begins again at stage 1 - Lateral eye movements - Coined by William Dement - Irregular breathing and pulse rate - Muscle tone is extremely relaxed, basically paralyzed - High-frequency beta waves - Low amplitude brain waves - Most memorable, vivid dreams occur during this stage, but there is evidence that dreams occur in other stages - Declines during childhood (levelling at 20%) |
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Theories about dreams: |
Freud: Wish Fulfillment Cartwright: Problem Solving Hobson & McCarley: by-product of bursts of activity emanating from the subcortical areas in the brain |
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Electroencephalograph (EEG): |
Monitors the electrical activity of the brain over time by means of recording electrodes attached to the surface of the scalp |
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Beta: |
- 13-24 cycles per second - Normal waking though - Alert problem solving |
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Alpha: |
- 8-12 cycles per second - Deep relaxation - Blank mind - Meditation |
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Theta: |
- 4-7 cycles per second - Light sleep |
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Delta: |
- Less than 4 cycles per second - Deep sleep |
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Non-REM Sleep: |
- Sleep stages 1 through 4 without REM - Relatively little dreaming - Varied EEG activity |
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Brain structure important to sleep and wakefulness is: |
Reticular formation in the core of the brainstem |
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Ascending Reticular Activating System... |
...consists of the afferent fibres running through the reticular formation that influence physiological arousal. |
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Selective Deprivation |
- Subjects were woken when they began going into REM sleep - Deprived of REM sleep |
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REM Deprivation |
- Little impact on daytime functioning and task performance - Spontaneously shift into REM sleep more frequently - Spend extra time in REM periods for one to three nights to make up for their REM deprivation |
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Insomnia |
- Chronic problems getting adequate sleep 1. Difficulty falling asleep 2. Difficulty remaining asleep 3. Persistent early-morning awakening |
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Causes of Insomnia |
- Excessive anxiety/tension - Side effect of depression, or other emotional problems |
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Treatment for Insomnia |
- Benzodiazepine (Dalmane, Halcion, Restoril) - Nonbenzodiazepine (Ambien, Sonata, Lunesta) |
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Narcolepsy |
- Sudden and irresistible onsets of sleep during normal waking periods |
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Sleep Apnea |
- Frequent, reflexive gasping for air that awakens a person and disrupts sleep |
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Nightmares |
- Anxiety-arousing dreams that lead to awakening, usually from REM sleep |
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Night Terrors |
- Abrupt awakenings from NREM sleep, accompanied by intense autonomic arousal and feelings of panic |
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REM Sleep Behaviour Disorder (RBD) |
- Potentially troublesome dream enactments during REM periods |
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Somnambulism (Sleepwalking) |
- Occurs when a person arises and wanders about while remaining asleep |
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Lucid Dreams |
- Dreams where people can think clearly about the circumstances of waking life and the fact that they are dreaming, yet they remain asleep
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Manifest Content |
- The plot of a dream at the surgace level |
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Latent Content |
- The hidden or disguised meaning of the events in the plot |
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Dissociation |
- Splitting off of mental processes into two separate, simultaneous steams of awareness |
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Meditation |
- A family of practices that train attention to heighten awareness and bring mental proess under greater voluntary control |
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Psychoactive Drugs |
- Chemical substances that modify mental, emotional, or behavioural fuctioning |
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Narcotics Definition |
- AKA Opiates - Drugs derived from opium that are capable of relieving pain - Heroin, Morphine, Codeine, Demerol, Methadone |
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Sedatives Definition |
- AKA Downers - Sleep-inducing drugs that tend to decrease central nervous system activation and behavioural activity |
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Stimulants Definition |
- Drugs that tend to increase central nervous system activation and behavioural activity - Cocaine, Amphetamines |
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Hallucinogens Definition |
- Drugs that have powerful effects on mental and emotional functioning, marked most prominently by distortions in sensory and perceptual experience. |
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Cannabis Definition |
- The hemp plant from which marijuana, hashish, and THC are derived |
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Alcohol Definition |
- Beverages containing ethyl alcohol |
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Tolerance |
- A progressive decrease in person's responsiveness to a drug |
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Physical Dependance |
- When a person must continue to take a drug to avoid withdrawal illness |
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Physiological Dependence |
- When a person must continue to take a drug to satisfy intense mental and emotional craving for the drug |
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Learning: |
A relatively durable change in behaviour or knowledge due to experience. |
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Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov): |
- When a natural stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a response originally elicited by another stimulus. - Ivan Pavlov (Russian), conditioned dogs to salivate at the sound of a tone. |
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Unconditioned Stimuli (USC) |
A stimulus that evokes an unconditional response without previous conditioning. |
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Phobias |
Irrational fears of specific objects or situations. |
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Agoraphobia |
Intense fear of being in public places where it may be difficult to escape from or in which it might be difficult to obtain help. |
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Conditioning: |
Learning connections between events that occur in an organism's environment. |
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Unconditioned Response (UCR): |
An unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning. |
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Conditioned Stimulus (CS): |
A previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response. |
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Conditioned Response (CR): |
A learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning. |
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Trial: |
In classical conditioning, it consists of any presentation of a stimulus or a pair of stimulus. |
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Immunosuppression: |
A decrease in the production of antibodies. |
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Acquisition: |
The initial stage of learning something. |
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Spontaneous Recovery: |
The reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of non exposure to the conditioned stimulus.
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Renewal Effect: |
If a response is extinguished in a different environment than it was acquired, the extinguished response will reappear if the animal is retuned to the original environment where acquisition took place. |
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Stimulus Generalization: |
When an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus. |
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Stimulus Discrimination: |
Occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus. |
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Higher-Order Conditioning: |
A conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus. |
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Preparedness: |
A species-specific predisposition to be conditioned in certain ways and not others. |
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Contiguity: |
The sequential occurrence or proximity of stimulus and response, causing their association in their mind. |
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Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner): |
A form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences. (AKA instrumental learning) |
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Law of Effect: |
If a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to satisfying effects, the association between the stimulus and the response is strengthened. |
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Reinforcement: |
When an event following a response increases an organism's tendency to make that response.
- strengthening a response |
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Operant Chamber/Skinner Box: |
A small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is recorded while the consequences of the response are systematically controlled. |
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Reinforcement Contingencies: |
The circumstances or rules that determine whether responses lead to the presentation of reinforcers. |
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Cumulative Recorder: |
Creates a graphic record of responding and reinforcement in a Skinner box as a function of time. |
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Primary Reinforcers: |
Events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs. |
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Secondary/Conditioned Reinforcers: |
Events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers. |
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Shaping; |
Consists of the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response. |
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Resistance to Extinction: |
Occurs when an organism continues to make response after delivery of the reinforcer has been terminated. |
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Discriminative Stimuli |
Cues that influence operant behaviour by indicating the probable consequence (reinforcement or non reinforcement) of a response. |
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Schedule of Reinforcement |
Determines which occurrences of a specific response result in the presentation of a reinforcer. |
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Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement
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Occurs when a designated response is reinforced only some of the time. |
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Fixed-Ratio (FR) Schedule
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The reinforcer is given after a fixed number of nonreinforced responses.
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Variable-Ratio (VR) Schedule
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The reinforcer is given after a variable number of non reinforced responses.
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Fixed-Interval (FI) Schedule
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The reinforcer is given for the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed.
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Variable-Interval (VI) Schedule
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The reinforcer is given for the first response after a variable time interval has elapsed.
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Continuous Reinforcement |
Occurs when every instance of a designated response is reinforced.
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Positive Reinforcement
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Occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus.
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Negative Reinforcement
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Occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus. |
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Escape Learning |
An organism acquires a response that decreases or ends some aversive stimulation. |
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Avoidance Learning |
An organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from occurring. |
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Punishment |
Occurs when an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response. |
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Latent Learning |
Learning that is not apparent from behaviour when it first occurs. |
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Instinctive Drift |
Occurs when an animal's innate response tendencies interfere with the conditioning processes. |
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Observational Learning (Albert Bandura) |
Occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models. |
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Mirror Neurons |
Neutrons that are activated by performing an action or by seeing another monkey or person perform the same action. |
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Encoding |
Forming a memory code. |
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Storage |
Maintaining encoded information in memory over time. |
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Retrieval |
Recovering information from memory stores. |
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Attention |
Focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events. Selective attention is critical to everyday functioning. |
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Levels-of-Processing-Theory |
Proposes that deeper levels of processing result in longer-lasting memory codes. |
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Elaboration |
Linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding. |
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Dual-Coding Theory |
Memory is enhanced by forming semantic an visual codes, since either can lead to recall. |
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Self-Referent Encoding |
Involves deciding how or whether information is personally relevant. |
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3 key process that contribute to memory: |
- Encoding - Storage - Retrieval |
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Sensory Memory |
Preserves information in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second. |
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Short-Term Memory (STM) |
A limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for up to about 20 seconds. |
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Rehearsal |
The process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information. |
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Chunk |
A group of familiar stimuli stored in a single unit.
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Working Memory |
A limited capacity storage system that temporarily maintains and stores information by providing an interface between perception, memory, and action. |
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Working Memory Capacity (WMC) |
Refers to one's ability to hold and manipulate information in conscious attention. |
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Long-Term Memory (LTM) |
An unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time. |
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Flashbulb Memories |
Unusually vivid and detailed recollections of momentous events. |
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Clustering |
The tendency to remember similar or related items in groups. |
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Conceptual Hierarchy |
A multilevel classification system based on common properties among items. |
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Schema |
Organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object or event. |
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Semantic Network |
Consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts. |
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Connectionist/Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) |
Assume that cognitive processes depend on patterns of activation in highly interconnected computational networks that resemble neural networks. |
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3 Kinds of Memory Stores |
- Sensory - Short Term - Long Term |
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Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon |
The temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it's just out of reach. |
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Misinformation Effect |
Occurs when participants' recall of an event they witnessed is altered by introducing misleading postevent information. |
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Reality Monitoring |
The process of deciding whether memories are based on external sources (one's perception of actual events) or internal sources (one's thoughts or imagination) |
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Source Monitoring |
Involves making attributions about the origins of memories. |
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Source Monitoring Error |
Occurs when a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source. |
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Destination Memory |
Recalling to whom one has told what. |
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Forgetting Curve |
Graphs retention and forgetting over time. |
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Retention |
The proportion of material remembered. |
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Recall Measure of Retention |
Requires subjects to reproduce information on their won without any cues.
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Recognition Measure of Retention |
Requires subjects to select previously learned information from an array of options. |
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Relearning Measure of Retention |
Requires a subject to memorize information a second time to determine how much time or how many practice trials are saved by having learned it before. |
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Decay Theory |
Proposes that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time. |
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Interference Theory |
Proposes that people forget information because of competition from other material. |
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Retroactive Interference |
Occurs when new information impairs the retention of previously learned information. |
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Proactive Interference |
Occurs when previously learned information interferes with the retention of new information. |
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The Encoding Specificity Principle |
The value of retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the memory code. |
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Transfer-Appropriate Processing |
Occurs when the initial processing of information is similar to the the of precessing required by the subsequent measure of retention. |
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Repression |
Keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buries in the unconscious. |
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Seven Sins of Memory (Daniel Schacter) |
- Transcience - Absentmindedness - Blocking - Misattribution - Suggestibility - Bias - Persistence |
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Long-Term Potential (LTP)
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A long-lasting increase in neural excitability at synapses along a specific neural pathway. |
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Retrograde Amnesia |
The loss of memories for events that occurred prior to the onset of amnesia. |
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Anterograde Amnesia |
The loss of memories for events that occur after the onset of amnesia. |
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Consolidation |
A hypothetical process involving the gradual conversion of information into durable memory codes stores in long-term memory. |
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Implicit Memory |
Apparent when retention is exhibited on a task that does not require intentional remembering. |
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Explicit Memory |
Involves intentional recollection of previous experiences. |
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Declarative Memory |
System that handles factual information. |
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Non-declarative/Procedural Memory |
System that houses memory for actions, skills, operations, and conditioned responses. |
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Episodic Memory System |
Made up of chronological, or temporally dated, recollections of personal experiences. |
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Semantic Memory System |
Contains general knowledge that is not tied to the time when the information was learned. |
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Prospective Memory |
Remembering to perform actions in the future. |
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Retrospective Memory |
Remembering events from the past or previously learned information. |
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Mnemonic Devices |
Methods used to increase the recall of information. |
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Serial-Position Effect |
When subjects show better recall for items at the beginning and end of a list that for items in the middle. |
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Cognition |
The mental process involved in acquiring knowledge. |
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Language |
Symbols that convert meaning plus rules for combining those symbols, that can be used to generate an infinite variety of messages. |
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Phonemes |
The smallest speech units in a language that can be distinguished perceptually. |
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Morphemes |
The smallest units of meaning in a language |
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Semantics |
The area of language concerned with understanding the meaning of words and work combinations. |
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Syntax |
A system of rules that specify how words can be arranged into sentences. |
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Fast Mapping |
When children map a word onto an underlying concept after only one exposure.
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Overextension |
When a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a wider set of objects or actions than it is meant to. e.g. calls everything that is round a ball |
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Underextention |
When a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a narrower set of objects or actions than it is meant to. e.g. calls only one specific doll "doll" |
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Telegraphic Speech |
Consists mainly of content words; articles, prepositions, and other less critical words are omitted. |
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Over-regularizations |
When grammatical rules are incorrectly generalized to irregular cases where they do not apply. |
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Metalinguistic Awareness |
The ability to reflect on the use of language. |
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Bilingualism |
Acquisition of two languages that use different speech sounds, vocabulary, and grammatical rules. |
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Language Acquisition Device (LAD) |
An innate mechanism or process that facilitates the learning of language. |
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Linguistic Relativity |
The hypothesis that one's language determines the nature of one's thoughts. |
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Problem Solving
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Refers to active efforts to discover what must be done to achieve a goal that is not readily attainable. |
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Insight |
The sudden discovery of the correct solution following incorrect attempts based primarily on trained and error. |
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Functional Fixedness |
The tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use. |
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Mental Set |
When people press in using problem solving strategies that have worked in the past. |
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Problem Spave |
Refers to the set of possible pathways to a solution considered by the problem solver. |
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Trail and Error |
Trying possible solutions and discarding those that are in error until one works. |
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Algorithm |
A methodical, step-by-step procedure for trying all possible alternatives in searching for a solution to a problem. |
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Heuristic |
A guiding principle or "rule of thumb" used in solving problems or making decisions. |
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Incubation Effect |
When new solutions surface for a previously unsolved problem after a period of not consciously thinking about the problem.
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Field Dependence-Independence |
Individuals' tendency to rely primarily on external versus internal frames of reference when orienting themselves in space |
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Risky Decision Making |
Involves making choices under conditions of uncertainty. |
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Availability Heuristic |
Involves basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease with which relevant instances come to mind. |
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Representativeness Heuristic |
Involves basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that event. |
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Conjunction Fallacy |
Occurs when people estimate that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening. |
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Behavioural Economics |
Field of study that examines the effects of humans' actual (not idealized) decision-making processes on economics decisions. |
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Theory of Bounded Rationality |
Asserts that people tend to use simple strategies in decision making that focus on only a few facets of available options and often result in "irrational" decisions that are less than optimal. |
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Gambler's Fallacy |
The belief that the odds of a change event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently. |
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Confirmation Bias |
The tendency to seek information that supports one's decisions and beliefs while ignoring disconfirming information. |
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Myside Bias |
The tendency to evaluate evidence in a manner slanted in favour of one's own opinions. |
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Belief Perseverance |
The tendency to hang on to beliefs in the face of contradictory evidence. |
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