Aging Psychology Final Exam

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As you age...

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--Will these characteristics stay the same?
In what ways do you think they it will change?
--Most older adults have difficulty adapting to change; they are set in their ways.
--TRUE or FALSE?

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Personality: definition

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--one of the broadest terms in psych
--An enduring pattern of thoughts, feelings, motivations, & behaviors expressed across different situations.
--3 parts:
1) traits: distinguishing feature of persons character that remains relatively stable
2) personal concerns: what ppl want and the tech. strategies and plans to get there
3) identity: continuing and coherent sense of self over time

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Creating identity

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--Identity assimilation: attempt to fit events in a preconceived view of who we are and downplay events that don't fit
--identity accommodation: events happen that don't fit and we alter our identity
--Identity can be found through a LIFE STORY which is made up of:
1) coherence: of events as a whole
2) assimilation: personal interpretation of events
3) structure: beginning middle and end
4) truth

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Personality: 2 measure

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--2 Major Methods:
1. Objective Measures of Personality: Asks person to list, sort, or rate themselves on a variety of attributes
2. Projective Measures of Personality: Given an ambiguous stimulus (picture or passage) and person
projects their personality onto it.

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Objective Tests

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1. Objective Measures of Personality: Asks person to list, sort, or rate themselves on a variety of attributes
--Q-sorts: given a stack of cards w/ personality descriptions and asked to separate them into piles
--higher validity and reliability than projective tests

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Projective Tests

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--A method for covertly measuring a person's personality
by having them interpret ambiguous stimuli
--Thematic apperception test
--draw-a-person test
--rorscharsch' s inkblot
--Projective tests have been described as a “clinician’s delight and a statistician’s nightmare"
--less reliable and valid than objective test

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Trait Theories

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--Trait theories focus on lay descriptions of people, obtained via self-reports, and grouped via factor analysis
--Allport & Odbert (1936) - 18,000 words related to personality.
• Cattell (1957) - uses factor analysis to reduce list to 16 traits.
-, Warmth, Intelligence, Emotional Stability, Assertiveness,
Seriousness, Conscientiousness, Shyness, Sensitivity, Suspiciousness, Imaginativeness, Privateness, Apprehension, Openness to Change, Self-Reliance, Perfectionism, Tension.
• Eysenck (1953) - distinguishes between 3 major traits:
1. Extroversion refers to the degree to which a person is
sociable, active, and willing to take risks.
2. Neuroticism refers to a person’s emotional stability and
their level of negative affect.
3. Psychoticism refers to the degree to which a person is
egocentric, impulsive, and aggressive.

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The Five Factor Model (FFM)

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--The Big Five; The OCEAN model
1) Openness to experience: Imaginative, curious, creative, adventurous.
2) Conscientiousness: Organized, clean, disciplined, ambitious.
3) Extroversion: Social, talkative, assertive, active, positive.
4) Agreeableness:Trusting, kind, helpful, cooperative, compliant.
5) Neuroticism: Anxious, insecure, extreme, emotional, unrealistic.

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The Five Factor Model (FFM): high/low

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Victoria Study: Which traits show stability or change with age? Small, Hertzog, Hultsch, & Dixon (2003)

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Aim: to examine if personality changes or
remains the same as people age
• Participants: Victoria Study

223 d lt 55 t 85 ld (M 69)
– 223 adults: 55 to 85 years old (M age= 69)
– 60% female & ethnically diverse
– M education = 13 years
• Measure: self-reported personality: given twice, 6 years apart

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Victoria Study: Results 1

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Results 1: examine if mean-level on trait changes
•Mean-levels of personality traits suggest stability in late life
-Quantitative changes are small, and mostly positive

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Victoria Study: Results 2

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Results 2: stability of rank-order within a group
– examine correlation between times of testing
•High positive rank-order correlations suggest
stability of personality in late life

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The Five Factor Model (FFM): Age Differences

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-Openness to new experience: stable (small decline)
-Conscientiousness: stable
-Extraversion: stable
-Agreeableness: stable (small increase)
-neuroticism: stable (small decline)
-Personality is "set in plaster" after the age of 30!

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Critiques of FFM

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• Exclusive use of self-report measures
– bias to report stability, or if change, getting better
with age
• Over-reliance on group data
– examine possible intraindividual change: some
people stable, others show change
• Little consideration of sociocultural context
– socialization & life experiences can influence
personality …

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Is Personality Innate? (twins)

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--The most recent research on the innate basis of personality focuses on Heritability: the degree to which variance in a personality trait is due to genetic influences
--Heritability Estimate = [correlation between identical twins] minus [correlation between fraternal twins] x 2
• Most personality traits (including all of the Big Five) show relatively high heritability estimates (~.15 - .50).

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Is Personality Innate? Two Factor Model

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1) High Autonomic (emotional) Activity-Neuroticism
Low Autonomic (emotional) Activity- Stable
2) High Cortical (mental) Arousal- introvert
Low Cortical (mental) Arousal- extrotvert

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Do Traits Really Exist?

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-- In 1968, Mischel published a major critique of personality research.
--He noted that the ability of personality traits to predict specific behaviors is relatively poor.
--And that correlations between self-reported traits and peer ratings were often quite low.
--These facts led him to argue that "our behavior is driven more by the SITUATION than by any internal characteristic of the PERSON".
--Situational Variables - the circumstances in which
we find ourselves
--Person-by-Situation Interactions - the expression of
particular traits only in certain situations.

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Personality: Cognitive Factors

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--The development of personality is affected by people’s
thoughts, goals, and expectations.
• Expectancies – what you expect to happen (i.e., locus of control).
• Self-Efficacy – beliefs about your capabilities; the sense of being able to produce desired outcomes.
--Personal Concerns Perspective: personality is not reducible to traits, but reflects PERSONAL GOALS, that are likely different at EACH STAGE of life

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Social Influences on Personality: Birth Order

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•First-Born or Only Child (undivided parent attention): More responsible, ambitious, self-disciplined, & assertive, but also more temperamental & anxious about status.
•Middle-Born: Less identified with family, less likely to ask for help, more likely to live far from home & less likely to visit parents
• Last- or Later-Born: More easy-going, trusting, & altruistic; more adventurous & untraditional; more social; but also more self-conscious.

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Social Influences on Personality: Gender and Peers

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•Gender
--Women: More social, empathetic, & nurturing; more neurotic. (societal expectations: women more willing to report emotion)
--Men: More independent, assertive, & aggressive; more angry
•Peers
--Some researchers have claimed that peers have a large
influence on a developing child's personality, primarily because of the child's desire to fit in (cf. "peer pressure").
--But the evidence for peer influence on personality is scarce.

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Social Influences on Personality: Cultural Influences

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--Cross-cultural studies have generally revealed the same personality traits identified in the Big Five.
--Individualists Cultures (US, UK, Canada, Australia) emphasize the self and independence (freedom, equality) whereas
--Collectivist Cultures (Asian, African, Latin America) emphasize the group and co-dependence (social order, caring for others).
--Cultural trends across generations (e.g., The 60's, The Me Generation, Gen-X, Gen-Y) may also shape personality.

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Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

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• Personality is NOT just a trait inherent to an individual, it reflects an interaction between psychological (inner) maturation & societal demand
• “Crisis” of opposing tendencies to be resolved
• If successful, acquire personality “strength”

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Erikson’s Adult Stages

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•Intimacy vs. Isolation (ages 19-40): Intimate relations with others and the ability to commit
•Generativity vs. Stagnation (ages 40-65): Contributing to future generations (midlife crisis=stagnation)
•Integrity vs. Despair (ages 65+): Reflecting on life and deciding whether it was worthwhile.

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3 alternatives to eriksons adult stages

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1) redefinition of self vs. Preoccupation with work: retire and start over or keep working
2) body transcendence vs. body preoccupation: cope w/ physical body changes
3) ego transcendence vs. go preoccupation: death is inevitable and what you leave behind is all you'll be know for

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Limitations of Erikson’s Theory

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• Stages are a bit stereotypical and dated (you are in one stage for too long)
• Are crises really specific to life phase (stages)?
– crises come & go across lifespan
• Adulthood stages are too broad
– multiple types of “generativity”
• Difficult theory to test…

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Testing Erikson’s Theory
McAdams & de St. Aubin, 1992

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• Aim: examine age differences in generative concern
• Two samples from urban area:
– Adult: 149 men and women (M = 32) – generativity stage
– College: 165 intro psych students
• Measure
– Loyola Generativity Scale: self-reported generative
concern: see picture

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Testing Erikson’s Theory: Results
McAdams & de St. Aubin, 1992

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•Age differences in generative concern partially supports theory
•Gender differences suggest stages are more than biological maturation

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Social Relationships

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--Fundamental human motivation: relationships important at all points in the lifespan
--But do relationships change with age?
--Quantity: size of social networks decreases with age
--Quality: types & meaning of relationships changes with age

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Socioemotional Selectivity Theory (Carstensen, 1993)

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Assumptions:
•Changes in social networks reflect a life-long selection process (we become more selective as we age).
•Perception of time (nearness to death) shifts social goals across lifespan:
--Information seeking in young adulthood (time unlimited)
--Emotion regulation in older adulthood (time limited)

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Age Differences in Social Networks
(Lang & Carstensen, 1994)

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--Aim: Examine relation between the size (quantity) & quality of social networks & age
--Participants:156 70-104 year-olds
--Methods: Circle diagram to report size & quality of social relationships
--Quality = where in the circle people fall
--Size (quantity) = total number of people listed

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Age Differences in Social Networks: Results
(Lang & Carstensen, 1994)

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--Results:
1) size (quantity) of social network: As age increases, size of social network decreases
2) quality of social relationships: Older adults have proportionally more emotionally close relationships

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Grandparenthood Statistics

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--Most of us will become grandparents (49-53 yrs)
--95% of people are grandparents by the time their children reach their forties, & have at least 5 grandchildren on average
--Expect to be a grandparent for 30-40 years
--“The reason grandchildren and grandparents get along so well is that they have a common enemy.” ~ Unknown

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5 Grandparenting Styles

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1) Formal: Traditional formal role, with indulgences, & some caregiving (33%)
2) Fun seeker: Informal role, mutual source of fun & ‘leisure’ (25%)
3) Distant: Traditional, but only ritualistically & intermittently involved (20%)
4) Surrogate parent: Hands-on caregiver, take over parents’ roles (14% GMs)
5) Dispenser of wisdom: Authoritarian position, give advice about childrearing (4%)

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Grandchildren living w/ Grandparents: Drug abuse and Delinquency

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--Parents gone and g-parents taking care of kids= skip generation parenting
--in 1970: 3.2%
--in 1997: 5.5%
--2.5% of mothers moved back in w/ parents

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Marriage & Divorce

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--50% of marriages today end in divorce
--“I was married by a judge. I should have asked for a jury.” ~ Groucho Marx, 1890-1977
--What about the 50% of marriages that last, & last for a long time?

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Why marriages last a long time...

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-- men are higher in "married" column b/c they are alive and married (more likely to remarry)
--women end up in the widowed category b/c they outlive their husband (more like to NOT remarry)
--divorce rate= relatively low but WILL rise due to cohort

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Marital Satisfaction in Adulthood

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--Women are happier as newlyweds. Men see marriage as a loss of freedom
--women fall below men when they have kids b/c of the pressure to take care of the children

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Marital Satisfaction in Adulthood: alt. scenarios

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--sandwiched generation: grandparents move back in w/ parents
--emotionally divorced: so used to taking care of kids you don't have eyes for your partner anymore

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Age Differences in Couples: Aim & Participants
(Levenson, Carstensen, & Gottman, 1994)

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• Aim: Examine positive & negative emotion in middle-aged & older couples’ conversations
•Participants
--156 healthy, middle-aged & older couples
--All currently working
--85% Caucasian
--Both satisfied & unsatisfied couples… why?

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Age Differences in Couples: Methods
(Levenson, Carstensen, & Gottman, 1994)

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•Method: natural conversation scenario
•Day 1
--Neutral conversation about day’s events
--Identify a conflict topic & have conversation
--Identify a pleasant topic & have conversation
•All conversations were videotaped
•Day 2: Watch videotape & gave continuous self-report of emotion

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Age Differences in Couples: Results-Pleasant Topic
(Levenson, Carstensen, & Gottman, 1994)

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--Older couples derive more pleasure out of
discussing pleasant topics

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Age Differences in Couples: Results- Conflict
(Levenson, Carstensen, & Gottman, 1994)

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--Older couples also have more positive
emotion when discussing conflicts
--they make bad topics more pleasant

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Personality: conclusion

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--After years of marriage Older adults are more:
1) satisfied, &…
2) Better able to deal with negative situations

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6 Phases of Retirement: Stage, Description, and Examples

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General Facts about Retirement

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--only 24% of women and 44% of men still work full-time after age 62
--With life expectancy over 75, people who retire at 60 can expect to spend about 15 years in retirement (20% of their life).
-- Two major factors determine when people retire:
(1) health
(2) finances
--Bridge jobs

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The Dying Process: Kübler-Ross’s 5 Stage Theory

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The Dying Process: Kübler-Ross’s 5 Stage Theory FINDINGS

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•Represents range of emotions during dying, but…
 -Not a “sequence” (not in order)
 -Not universal (not everyone)
 -Duration in each stage varies
•There is an end to the dying process

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When does death begin?

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•Brain death: (e.g., no eye
movements, respiration)
-No change after 24 hours
-All criteria must be met
-Rule out “mimics”
•Persistent vegetative state (PVS):
-no cortical (e.g., thinking), but
-brainstem (e.g., breathing) activity
-sleep/wake cycle
- 1 month minimum
-PVS's live close to 7 years

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Aging successfully: losses vs. gains

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--Losses in physical & cognitive functioning (but not entirely and not always!)
--Stability and gains in personality & social relationships

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Coping Changes and problem solving

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--strategic knowledge: b/c they're older they know how to deal better
--compensating for loss: adults have to change coping strategies depending on the situation
--passive emotional regulation: not directly dealign w/ prob
--proactive emotion regulation: confront probs/emotions
--avoidance: act as if there was no prob

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strategies for Coping with physical decline

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1) assimilation: modify behavior to meet or maintain activity
2) accommodation: modify goals or standards to cope
3) immunization: evidence of loss is reinterpreted in a more positive way

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Control

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--Locus of control: belief about pos. and neg. things
--Internal control: its you ability
--External control: you have no control
--Primary control: exerting influence on the external world
--secondary control: change w/in individual

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Social support: types and 3 benefits

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--Social support: assistance form social network
--social network: fam/friends who are close to us
--Instrumental support: help w/ specific tasks
--emotional support: help w/ emotion
--convoy model: ppl in social network tend to move thru life together (watching and supporting each other)
--Benefits:
1) social factors: help in buffering stress
2) psych factors: pos. emotions and sense of control
3) beh. factors: healthy/unhealthy beh influenced by support network

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Why sexual activity declines

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-sex horomones decrease
-menopause
-health/medications
-decreased ability of partner (men only)
-social unacceptability

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6 traits of Friendships and socioemotional selectivity theory

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-voluntary
-reciprocal
-self-disclosure
-equality
-emotional attatchment
-overlapping interest
--socioemotional selectivity theory: older ppl develop an increased attention to emotional factors in their relationships due to an awareness that time is limited

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Religion and its benefits

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-Religion: community of ppl w/ same beliefs
-spirituality: private, emotional, intellectual connection w/ a higher power
--demand/restrictions of faith may lead to better health (no drinking, sex, drugs, etc)
--Prayer and Meditation: way to cope w/ stress
--social support of religious community
--network expansion: meet ppl @ religious gatherings (church)
--provides a more positive outlook

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PVS Wills and Wishes

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--Living will: specifies types of treatments someone wants/doesnt if they become PVS
--Five wishes: info behind just med. treat. (how comfy they want to be, how they want to be treated, what they wish to tell loved ones)
--Health care durable power of attorney: another person is the decision maker for health care decisions of PVS
--Do Not Resuscitate (DNR): Do not try to save them
--Do Not Hospitalize (DNH): don't take them to the hospital but life saving procedures may be performed

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Euthanasia

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--greek for 'good death'
--refusing life-sustaining technology
--passive euthanasia: nothing is done to prolong life
--active euthanasia (3 types):
1) murder (death at the hands of another)
2) suicide
3) Physician-Assisted Suicide: prescribed drugs by doctor

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Bereavement, mourning, grief

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--survival (of another death)
--mourning: socially acceptable way to express grief
--grief: coping w/ loss and emotions experienced
--anticipatory grief: mourning while person is still alive= less grief when they actually die
-4 grief phases:
1) numbing
2) yearning/searching
3) disorganization/despair
4) reorganization
--bereaved ppl higher mortality than married ppl

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Treatments/support for Bereaved

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--bibliotherapy: reading a lot
--Writing
--self-help groups
--family and social support