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134 Cards in this Set
- Front
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What were Wundt's 2 psychologies?
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1. Experimental psychology: controlled introspection
2. Cultural psychology: study of mental processes which are created by a community of human life through examining the artifacts of particular cultures |
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What is Wundt's introspection?
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Having qualified and trained participants report inner experiences/perceptions of their own basic mental processes (in response to a single, simple stimulus) under strictly controlled conditions
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What are the 3 processes Wundt used to interpret his experiments?
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1. Apprehension: process by which impressions enter consciousness
2. Apperception: process by which we organize and make sense of experience 3. Creative synthesis: process through which experience becomes a unified whole |
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What is Wundt's Tridimensional Theory of Feeling?
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1. Feelings vary along three dimensions
a. Tension-relief b. Excitement-depression c. Pleasant-unpleasant |
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What is the Wundt Curve?
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1. Diagram of the relationship between the intensity of a stimulus and its pleasantness
2. Vertical axis: degree to which a person feels positive or negative in a particular situation; rises and then falls as stimulus-intensity increases 3. Implies you will get the most pleasure from moderate levels of stimulus intensity |
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What is Wundt's psychological parallelism?
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1. Posits that all psychical processes (from simple to complex) run in parallel with a physical process in the nervous system
2. Not point-to-point correspondence 3. Mental processes must be explained using their own laws (i.e. introspection), not physiological laws |
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What did James believe about habit?
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1. Habits are adaptive in that they make our behavior more efficient. Once an action has become habitual, we no longer need to pay as much attention to it.
2. Formation of habits depends on plasticity - the ability of an organism to alter its behavior as circumstances change 3. James believed the formation of early habits was important, and believed self-control was learnable |
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What are the 5 characteristics of James' stream of consciousness?
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1. Every thought is personal
2. Within personal consciousness, change is constant (no exact reoccurrence of experience) 3. Within each personal consciousness, thought is sensibly continuous and indivisible 4. Consciousness is intentional in the sense of always seeming to be about objects independent of itself 5. Consciousness is selective and related to our interests and selves |
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What did James identify as 2 dangers of introspection?
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1. Prior categorizing - using prior knowledge to interpret
2. The psychologist's fallacy - assuming our own experience is universal |
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What is the Jamesian self?
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Consists of two parts:
1. "I" (self as subject: knower) - pure ego beyond the reaches of empirical observation 2. "Me" (self as object: known) - empirical self consisting of three parts: a. Material Self - all that is mine b. Social Self - self (selves) that are known to others and become known to us through others c. Spiritual Self - one's inner, conscious experiences that one known as one's own (ex. self-esteem) |
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What is the James-Lange Theory of Emotions?
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Suggests that bodily sensations are necessary parts of emotions
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What is Calkins' paired associations method?
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Experimental method used to study the effects of repetition or frequency on strengths of verbal association
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What is Calkins' self psychology?
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Emphasized self-other relationships and dynamics and the retention of a sense of "same self" as a "changing being" constantly interactive with others
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What method did Tichener emphasize for uncovering the elementary structure of mind
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Introspection - turn inward and observe own mental life
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What is Tichener's conception of mind?
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Mind is the sum-total of human experience and is considered dependent on a nervous system
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What did Tichener's introspection consist of?
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Ranged from simple to complicated retrospective analyses of experiences of objects or processes that gave rise to sensations, and then how these experiences, processes, and sensations formed into images and ideas
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What was Tichener's structuralism?
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1. Structure must precede function
2. We know the structure of mind through introspection 3. Basic sensations, accompanied by images and affects, are the building blocks of the mind 4. Basic sensations permit higher-order processes of attention, perception, and associative memory, and eventually more abstract, complex ideas and thought |
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What was Tichener's experimental psychology?
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1. A proper experiment consists of an introspection or a series of introspections made under standard conditions
2. Proper introspection must make use of the appropriate language (transparent words) and avoid the stimulus error |
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What did Tichener mean by the stimulus error?
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Describing objects as we have learned to categorize them rather than in terms of our basic experiences of them
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What was Tichener's dimensional system of consciousness?
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Four aspects:
1. Quality (variation in basic experiences - ex. colours, tastes) 2. Intensity (strength of experience) 3. Extensity (range of experience - ex. touch) 4. Protensity (duration of experience) |
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What are 4 reasons for the demise of structuralism?
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1. Mind not easy to define, not easy to agree on what was being introspected
2. Introspection seemed to yield different results in different laboratories using different languages and practices 3. Tichener restricted/ignored individual differences and the unconscious 4. Seemed too academic with no real-world applications |
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What does functionalism focus on?
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The adaptation of organisms to their environments in ways that yield practical and scholarly knowledge
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How did John Dewey conceptualize the psychological reflex?
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Not a single response to a single stimulus - recognized that we influence the world as it is influencing us
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What was Dewey's approach to education?
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1. Thought education should begin with pragmatically feasible routines drawn from the familiar everyday experiences of children
2. Thought it was the job of the teacher to create educational experiences that are in contact with the child's evolving experience and move the child to more general forms and understandings that might exhaust and go beyond what is currently known |
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What was Woodworth's S-O-R framework?
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Aimed to find out what occurred at the level of the organism in constantly restructuring relations between the organism and its world
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What did Woodworth mean by "sets"?
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Temporary cerebral organizations that facilitate and/or inhibit particular action tendencies - a kind of readiness that provides context for stimulus
What the organism brings to the interpretation of the world/stimulus |
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How was intelligence testing an application of functionalism?
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Binet-Simon functional approach defined intelligence as a fundamental faculty through which an individual adapts to his/her circumstances, which included activities of judgment, comprehension, reason
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What are Thorndike's puzzle boxes?
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Apparatus in which an animal was placed. If the animal pulled on a loop or other device, the door would open and the animal would be freed.
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What is Thorndike's law of effect?
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The effects of action determine the future rate of actions
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What is Thorndike's learning curve?
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Posits that learning does not improve suddenly, but rather then amount of time the animal spent in the box gradually and irregularly got to be less and less
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How did functionalism give way to behaviorism?
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Functionalism also relied on application and relevance, but behaviorism was more easily understandable and applied
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How did Thorndike's work make the transition from functionalism to behaviorism?
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Moved from functionalism's focus on human beings interacting holistically in their environments in ways that mutually shape both humans and their contexts to the study of organisms' responses to environmental stimuli and how environments shape behavior
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What is objective psychology?
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An approach which limits scientific psychology to the study of only those phenomena that can be directly measured and which employs strictly "objective" (i.e. physiological) methods
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What is a conditioned reflex?
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A particular learned response to a particular stimulus
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What are unconditioned reflexes?
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Innate (i.e. unlearned) responses to particular stimuli (e.g. salivation at food)
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What are unconditioned stimuli?
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Stimuli that elicit innate, automatic responses (i.e. a piece of meat)
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What are conditioned stimuli?
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Previously biologically neutral stimuli that through experience come to elicit a certain response, namely the conditioned response
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What 2 fundamental processes did Pavlov believe characterized activity in the nervous system?
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1. Excitation: the spreading of brain activity associated with a particular stimulation and response to it
2. Inhibition: the reduction or cessation of brain activity previously associated with a particular stimulus |
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What did Pavlov mean by cortical mosaic?
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The pattern of excitation and inhibition that characterizes the brain at a given time in a given setting, as the organism responds and/or does not respond to its environment
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What did Pavlov mean by "second signaling system"?
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Speech is a uniquely human capability that is connected with all internal and external stimulus, and capable of calling forth all of the reactions to those stimuli, even in their absence
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What did Bekhterev mean by reflexology?
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The strictly objective study of human behavior that seeks to understand the relationship between environmental influences and overt behavior
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What is Bekhterev's association reflex?
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Reflex to a signal preceded by a "negative" stimulus
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What is mentalism? How did Watson feel about it?
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Mentalism views the mental (vs. physical or observable) basis of human behavior to be the proper subject matter of psychology
Completely rejected by Watson |
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What is radical environmentalism?
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The belief that most, if not all, human behavior is caused by their environmental experience
Endorsed by Watson |
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What did Watson mean by stimulus and response?
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Stimulus: either an environmental situation, change, or some physical condition of the organism
Response: anything the organism did |
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What 3 habits did Watson identify?
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1. Emotional (visceral) habits: each emotion has a characteristic pattern of visceral and glandular responses that is triggered by an appropriate stimulus
2. Manual habits: formed through the repetition of particular responses; advocated distributed practice versus massed practice 3. Verbal habits: thought to be produced by the minute movements of the tongue and larynx (constitute thinking). Serially ordered. |
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How did Watson believe serially ordered behaviors were formed?
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1. There is a sequence of stimuli, each of which elicits a response
2. With repetition, the first stimulus by itself is capable of setting off the entire chain. Each response in the chain serves as the stimulus for the next response. |
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What was Lashley's technique of ablation?
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Destruction of parts of the cerebral cortex to observe the effects on the functioning of the organism
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What is Lashley's law of mass action?
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The loss of ability following destruction of parts of the cortex depends more on the amount of destruction than on the location of the destruction
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What is Lashley's law of equipotentiality?
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Any part of a functional area of the brain can perform the function associated with that area; therefore, to destroy a particular brain function the entire brain area associated with that function would need to be destroyed
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What was the engram that Lashley searched for?
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Engram: the supposed neurophysiological locus of memory and learning; hypothetical means by which memories are stored as physical or biochemical changes in the brain
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What was Skinner's radical behaviorism?
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Rejected mentalistic explanations of behavior, and assumed that behavior could be completely explained in terms of events external to the organism
Insisted that all internal activities of the organism were forms of behavior that had their origins in external contingencies of reinforcement |
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What is the difference between operant and respondent behavior?
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Operant: behavior that is controlled by its consequences and is emitted by an organism
Respondent: behavior that is involuntarily elicited by a known stimulus |
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What is operant conditioning?
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Involves the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behavior
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What did Skinner mean by reinforcement?
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Anything that increases the rate or probability of response
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What is positive reinforcement? Negative reinforcement?
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Positive: occurs when the consequence of a given behavior is rewarding to the organism, evidenced by an increase in the subsequence frequency of the behavior
Negative: occurs when the consequence of a given behavior is the removal of an aversive stimulus - also results in the subsequent frequency of the behavior |
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What is the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment?
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Negative reinforcement is when behavior becomes more frequent after the removal of an aversive stimulus
Punishment is when an aversive stimulus (or removal of rewarding stimulus) follows a response - results in a decrease in the response |
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What is the Skinner box?
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A sophisticated version of Thorndike's puzzle boxes that reinforce behavior in animals by providing food when the animal performs a certain behavior
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What are reinforcement schedules?
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Specific conditions involving various rates and times of reinforcement
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What is continuous reinforcement?
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Reinforcement is given every time a desired response occurs
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What is fixed ratio reinforcement?
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Reinforcement is given after a fixed number of desired responses have occured
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What is variable ratio reinforcement?
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Reinforcement is given after a variable number of desired responses have been made
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What is fixed interval reinforcement?
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Reinforcement is given at fixed intervals of time
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What is variable interval reinforcement?
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Reinforcement is given at variable intervals in time
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What factors led to the demise of Skinnerian behaviorism?
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1. Rise of cognitivism
2. Theoretical inconsistency and empirical demonstration |
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What did Freud mean by the unconscious?
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The part of the mind housing those psychic processes of which a person is not aware but which have a powerful effect on his/her attitudes and behavior.
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What did Jung mean by the unconscious?
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Universal psychological content possessed by the species as a whole, oh which an individual has no direct knowledge
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What is psychoanalysis?
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A therapeutic technique in which the role of unconscious processes is examined with the goal of liberating the patient from pathological symptoms caused by various unconscious desires
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What is analytical/archetypal psychology?
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A psychology devoted to investigating and integrating opposing parts of the personality (including archetypal components) into a coherent whole
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What did Mesmer mean by animal gravitation?
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A force through which planetary bodies influence human behavior
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What did Mesmer mean by animal magnetism?
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A force that is evenly distributed throughout the bodies of healthy people, and unevenly distributed throughout the bodies of unhealthy people, causing a variety of symptoms
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What did Mesmer mean by hypnosis?
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Induction of a trance-like state of consciousness resembling sleep and characterized by heightened susceptibility to suggestion
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What forces did Brucke believe influenced behavior?
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Repulsion and attraction
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According to Charcot, what was hysteria?
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Any illness which includes sensory or motor dysfunction, such as lack of sensation in a limb or impaired vision or hearing, but for which there appears to be no physical cause
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What did Freud mean by repression?
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The holding of traumatic thoughts or memories in the unconscious mind because pondering them would cause undue anxiety
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What is Freud's cathartic method?
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The alleviation of hysterical symptoms by allowing pathogenic ideas to be expressed consciously; a method by which a patient achieves emotional purging
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What is Freud's free association method?
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Method for studying the contents of unconscious minds, in which patients are encouraged to express freely everything and anything that comes to mind
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What is Freud's seduction hypothesis?
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Posits that the root of hysteria is sexual abuse
Later recanted by Freud, who said the abuse was actually infantile sexual fantasies |
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What 3 psychic states constitute personality, according to Freud (1st system)?
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1. Conscious: things of which one is aware at any given moment
2. Preconscious: things of which we are not currently aware, but of which we could easily become aware 3. Unconscious: memories and thoughts which are actively being repressed, or held from consciousness, and can, therefore, only be made conscious with great effort |
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What are the 3 structures of personality, according to Freud (2nd system)?
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1. Id: entirely unconscious part of the personality; driving force that contains all the instincts. Driven by the pleasure principe (seeking immediate gratification) - primary processes
2. Ego: aware of both the id and the physical world and coordinates the two. Operates according to the reality principle (provides real rather than imaginary satisfaction of needs) - secondary processes 3. Superego - social/moral component which guides the individual as to the "rightness" or "wrongness" of certain behaviors i. Conscience: internalized experiences for which the child has been consistently punished ii. Ego-ideal: internalized experiences for which the child has been consistently rewarded |
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What did Freud mean by libido?
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The collective energy associated with all the instincts (psychic energy)
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According to Freud, what two means are used by the Id to satisfy a need?
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Reflex action: automatically triggered when the discomfort created by the need arises
Wish fulfillment: Id conjures up an image of an object that will satisfy an existing need |
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What did Freud mean by cathexis and countercathexis?
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Cathexis: investment of psychic energy in thoughts of things that can satisfy a person's needs and desires
Countercathexis: process whereby one gives up investments of psychic processes |
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What did Freud mean by erogenous zone?
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The particular area of the body during any given stage of psychosexual development in which libidinal energy is concentrated
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What did Freud mean by fixation?
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When a person is not able to move on at the appropriate time from a given stage of psychosexual development, usually due to either over-gratification or under-gratification with regard to the particular erogenous zone that is focal at that stage
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What are the 5 stages in Freud's psychosexual model of development?
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1. Oral stage (0-1 years)
2. Anal stage (1-3 years) 3. Phallic stage (3-5 years) 4. Latency stage (6-puberty) - involvement in numerous substitute activities such as schoolwork, sports etc. 5. Genital stage (puberty onwards) |
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According to Freud, what will a child fixated in the oral stage be like as an adult?
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Oral character (excessive eating, drinking, kissing, smoking, aggressive, sarcastic and cynical thoughts and actions)
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According to Freud, what will a child fixated in the anal stage be like as an adult?
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Anal character (either generous, messy and wasteful, or stingy, orderly and perfectionistic)
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According to Freud, what is an Oedipus complex?
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An aspect of the phallic stage when children sexually desire the parent of the opposite sex and have feelings of hostility for the same sex parent
Boys develop castration anxiety, girls penis envy |
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What did Freud mean by regression?
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Returning to an earlier psychosexual stage in response to emotional triggers
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According to Freud, what is the difference between manifest and latent dream content?
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1. Manifest: what a dream appears to be about on the surface
2. Latent: what a dream is really about; brought about through psychoanalysis |
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What did Freud mean by dream work?
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The mechanism that distorts the meaning of a dream, thereby making it tolerable to the dreamer. Involves condensation and displacement.
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What did Freud mean by condensation and displacement?
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Condensation: single dream symbolizes several different things in waking life
Displacement: instead of dreaming about an anxiety-provoking object or event, the dreamer dreams of something symbolically similar to it |
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What 2 contributions did Anna Freud make to psychology?
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1. Defense mechanisms that protect the ego from the disruptive influence of unconscious wishes
2. Founded child psychoanalysis |
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How did Horney reconceputalize penis envy?
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1. Penis envy better understood as a thinking woman's reaction to the social privileges accorded to men and denied to women
2. Womb envy: men biologically and socially excluded from childbearing and caring and creativity in general |
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What did Horney mean by basic anxiety?
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Neurosis are the outcome of the child's response to basic anxiety (feeling isolated and helpless within a potentially hostile world)
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What did Horney identify as the 3 responses to basic anxiety?
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1. Moving towards people - self-effacing compliance
2. Moving away from people - isolated indifference 3. Moving against people - hostile vindictiveness Advocated flexible responses to basic anxiety |
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What did Jung believe about bipolar distinctions?
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Bipolar, oppositional distinctions always underlie psychological processes, which always have the potential to move in opposing directions
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What was Jung's rationalism?
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Held that the mind is equipped at birth with archetypal predispositions (innate organizational tendencies) to perceive, feel, and act in particular ways
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What did Jung mean by archetypes?
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Innate organizational tendencies that reside in the collective unconscious and are universal to all cultures (ex. anima (masculine image of femininity) and animus (feminine image of masculinity; the self (conscious ego) and the shadow (unconscious ego containing content disavowed to the ego)
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What did Jung mean by orientation?
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Orientation to external reality (extraversion) or internal reality (introversion)
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How did Jung believe perception occurred?
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Through the functions of sensation and intuition
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How did Jung believe judgment occurred?
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Through the functions of thinking or feeling
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What is the goal of Jungian analysis?
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To balance oppositional psychological processes and archetypes to attain a wholeness
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How did Jung believe archetypes influenced behavior?
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Archetypal material that emerges in dreams or altered states of consciousness can be used to restructure one's thinking and experiencing in productive ways
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In the psychodynamic perspective, what are structures and functions?
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Structures:
a. Freud - Id/Ego/Superego, Conscious/Preconscious/Unconscious b. Jung - Archetypal Functions: a. Freud - Defense mechanisms b. Jung - Psychological processes and functions |
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What is the difference between evolution and development?
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Evolution refers to the emergence and change of species over vast stretches of historical time
Development refers to changes in an individual member of a species over the much shorter period of the life course of that individual |
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What core idea do evolution and development share?
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Species and their members emerge and change over time as a consequence of their activity and interactivity in the world
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What are 2 reasons for Darwin's importance to psychology?
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1. Focus on social and biological
2. Before Darwin assumed that all living things had always been present and did not change over time |
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What is Darwin's theory of natural selection?
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A natural process by which only those individuals of a species best adapted to their environments tend to survive and hence transmit their genetic characteristics to succeeding generations
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What is Hall's recapitulation theory of development?
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Proposed that all stages of human evolution are reflected in the life of an individual person (ontogeny (individual change) recapitulates phylogeny (evolutionary change))
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What is Hall's Child Study Movement?
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Questionnaires administered by teachers, parents to determine what children at different ages and stages of development know and can do
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How did Hall conceptualize adolescence?
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As a period of Storm and Stress occassioned by a shift from a relatively comfortable relationship with nature to a new and challenging relationship with society and others
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What were Baldwin's four stages/epochs of ontogeny/phylogeny?
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1. Pleasure/Pain
2. Representation/Memory 3. Volitional Self-Control 4. Social/Ethical |
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What did Baldwin mean by accommodation and assimilation?
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Assimilation: conventional responding from habit
Accommodation: novel responding to changing circumstances |
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What is Werner's orthogentic principle?
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Claims that development proceeds from undifferentiated wholeness to increasing differentiation (of world, self and world-self-other relations) and hierarchical organization (including coordination, integration, and subordination)
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What is Piaget's genetic epistemology?
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Approach emphasizing the study of both the formation and the meaning of knowledge and the intellect
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How did Piaget see knowledge?
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As stemming from an interaction between the biological and the experiencing individual
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What did Piaget mean by accommodation and assimilation?
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Accommodation: the cognitive process of adjusting or changing existing schemas to fit incoming information about the surrounding environment
Assimilation: the cognitive process of "taking in" information from the surrounding environment in terms of existing schemas |
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What did Piaget mean by schema?
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The structural organization of the mind at the time of information
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What did Piaget mean by equilibrium?
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A cognitive state characterized by a balance between assimilation and accommodation
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What are the four stages of development in Piaget's model?
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1. Sensorimotor Period (0-2)
2. Preoperational Period (2-7) 3. Concrete Operations (7-12) 4. Formal Operations (Adolescence) |
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Describe the Sensorimotor Period in Piaget's development model.
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1. Pre-language
2. Initially, behavior limited to reflexes 3. Sensorimotor intelligence - age 2 a. Sense of surrounding space b. Perceptions of objects in space c. Notion of causal sequence d. Beginning sense of time's passage 4. Object permanence: realization that objects exist even when child cannot see them |
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Describe the Preoperational Period in Piaget's development model.
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1. Emergence of symbolic activity, especially language
2. Begin to conceptualize ideas 3. Deferred imitation (imitate something in its absence), symbolic play (pretend that something is the case) 4. Egocentrism: belief that everyone thinks and experiences the same things they do and an inability to take the point of view of another |
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Describe the Concrete Operational stage in Piaget's development model.
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1. Multiplication of classes: child begins to be able to classify objects into more than one class
2. Development of conservation: amounts are constant even when shape is manipulated 4. Capable of mental manipulations of concrete operations (ex. basic logic) |
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Describe the Formal Operations stage in Piaget's model.
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1. Development of formal operations: ability to employ general or abstract conceptualizations and principles (possible and actual events)
2. Adolescent egocentrism: personal fable (I am the first to have these thoughts and experiences) and imaginary audience (everyone else is as concerned with me and my actions and thoughts as I am) |
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How did Vygotsky disagree with Piaget regarding egocentric speech?
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Thought egocentric speech was a precursor to verbal thought that became inner speech later in development, whereas Piaget thought egocentric speech disappeared after a certain stage
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What is Vygotsky's zone of proximal development?
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The distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers
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Which level of the zone of proximal development did Vygotsky advocate as the primary focus for educators?
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Potential development level
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What did Erikson mean by epigenesis?
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The stages of personality development unfold in a particular and necessary sequence
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What did Erikson mean by crisis?
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A struggle between two opposing tendencies that occurs in each stage
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What are the 8 stages of Erikson's Psychosocial Model?
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1. Basic trust vs. mistrust (0-1)
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (2-3): emergence of will power 3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6): sense of purpose 4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12): feeling of competence 5. Identity vs. Identity diffusion (12-18): sense of faith in oneself and others 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (18-40): intimate relationships 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-65): develop caring relationships 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair (65-death): wisdom |
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What is Gibson's theory of perceptual learning?
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Perceptual learning a matter of differentiation, through which children become able to respond to increasingly differentiated aspects of their environment
Basic perception does not need to be learned, but it does become increasingly differentiated with experience |
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What are two reasons why activity of persons in context leads development over the reflective capabilities of persons?
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1. Development tends to proceed from undifferentiated to differentiated, to organized, meaningful differentiation
2. Development tends to proceed from biology to culture |
