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158 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
What are Alleles?
Alleles are genes that occupy corresponding positions on homologous chromosomes
What are homologous chromosomes?
Homologous chromosomes are chromosomes in a biological cell that pair (synapse) during meiosis, or alternatively, non-identical chromosomes that contain information for the same biological features and contain the same genes at the same loci but possibly different genetic information, called alleles, at those genes. For example, two chromosomes may have genes encoding eye color, but one may code for brown eyes, the other for blue.
What is Meiosis?
It is the process of reductional division in which the number of of chromosomes per cell is halved. Before meiosis, DNA in the original cell is replicated.
What are heterozygous chromosomes?
Those that have two different alleles for a single trait
What is Mitosis?
The process in which a eukaryotic cell separates the chromosomes in its cell nucleus into two identical sets in two daughter nuclei.
Phenotype may be defined as?
a visible expression of the genotype
Alleles are genes that:
occupy corresponding positions on homologous chromosomes
Seeds from a self-pollinated gold flowering plant produce 56 charcoal, 130 gold, and 61 beige flowering plants. The plant is:
heterozygous with incomplete dominance
A man with blood cell genotype B/O marries a woman with type A/B. Their offspring could have:
A/B, B/B, A/O or B/O
Two people are planning to have a family. The woman has blood type A/A and the man B/B. Their children will have the following:
Blood type A/B only
Twinning is an interesting biological phenomenon. Identical twins usually result from fertilization of:
one egg by one sperm and separation of cells during early development
What blood type is the universal recipient?
Type AB
What blood type is the universal donor?
Type O
What type(s) of blood can O receive
O-can receive only O
Type A blood types can only receive:
Type A blood types can only receive Type A and Type O blood. Type B blood is its nemesis and vice versa
What is a genotype?
The genotype is the genetic constitution of a cell, an organism, or an individual (i.e. the specific allele makeup of the individual) usually with reference to a specific character under consideration
A mink breeder finds that 50% of the offspring are aa. What genotype were their parents?
Aa x aa
During metaphase of mitosis:
the centrioles with asters are at the opposite poles
What is backcross and what does it seek to determine?
A backcross consists of crossing a dominant phenotype with a pure homozygous recessive. In this manner a breeder can determine if the phenotype is heterozygous or homozygous. the backcross is used, therefore, to determine if a line is genotypically pure
A hog breeder would use a backcross to:
determine if a particular hog is genotypically pure
Why is ATP considered the universal energy for metabolism?
ATP is a nucleotide that contains a large amount of chemical energy stored in its high-energy phosphate bonds. It releases energy when it is broken down (hydrolyzed) into ADP (or Adenosine Diphosphate). The energy is used for many metabolic processes.
The Enzyme for DNA replication is?
DNA Polymerase
The template for DNA replication is:
DNA
The Raw material for DNA replication is
deoxyribonucletide triphosphate
The Enzyme that catalyzes the replication of the leading strand during DNA replication in E.Coli is:
DNA polymerase 3
What is Catalysis?
Catalysis is the process in which the rate of a chemical reaction is either increased or decreased by means of a chemical substance known as a catalyst
What is an Okazaki fragment?
An Okazaki fragment is a relatively short fragment of DNA (with an RNA primer at the 5' terminus) created on the lagging strand during DNA replication
DNA replication in ???
produces one new strand continuously by adding nucleotides to the end of the strand. Replication of the other strand polymerizes nucleotides into short segments, then joins the segments using a ligase enzyme to form the other new strand.
prokaryotes
What is the function of DNA ligase in DNA replication in prokaryotes?
to join adjacent Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand
What is a ligase enzyme?
In biochemistry, a ligase (from the Latin verb ligāre — "to bind" or "to glue together") is an enzyme that can catalyse the joining of two large molecules by forming a new chemical bond, usually with accompanying hydrolysis of a small chemical group pendant to one of the larger molecules. Generally ligase catalyses the following reaction:

Ab + C → A–C + b
what is a codon?
three bases on an mRNA molecule that code for a specific amino acid
What is an anti-codon?
three bases on a tRNA molecule that match up with the codons (are complementary to them) on the mRNA.
The template for RNA synthesis is?
DNA
In prokaryotes most amino acids are specified by ? in mRNA
several different types of codons
The information source for protein synthesis in prokaryotes is:
mRNA
What is ribonucleotide triphosphate?
The Raw material for RNA synthesis
Operon organization appears to be typical of most ? genes
prokaryotic genes
These are the traits in what cells:

1. No nuclear envelope

2. Unicellular

3. Frequently occurs in loosely organized colonies
prokaryotic cells
These describe what cells:

1. contain nuclear envelope

2. unicellular or multicellular

3. multiple cells in organized patterns
eukaryotic cells
What are lipids?
Any fat soluble molecule such as fats, oils, waxes, cholesterol, sterils, and vitamins.
RNA polymerase in E.coli:
can initiate new RNA strands and add nucleotides to the 3' end of existing RNA strands
RNA polymerase attaches to the ? region of a prokoryote operon to begin RNA synthesis
promoter
The enzyme for protein synthesis in prokoryotes is:
part of the structure of the ribosome
What is RNA?
What is DNA?
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a type of molecule that consists of a long chain of nucleotide units. Each nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, a ribose sugar, and a phosphate. RNA acts as a messenger carrying instructions from the DNA to the ribosomes. RNA carries the blueprint for making the proteins from the DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes
DNA(deoxyribose nucleic acid) is the material that makes up the genes and chromosomes in our cells. The genes and chromosomes carry the genetic blueprint that controls our bodies and makes each of us a unique individual.

The way this works is that the DNA carries a code for making proteins, and the different proteins that it tells our cells to make lead not only to the differences between various types of cells, but also the differences between each and every one of us.

The DNA is in the nucleus of the cell, but the proteins are made in the ribosomes, which are microscopic structures in the cytoplasm of the cell, which surrounds the nucleus
What are prokaryotic cells?
Cells that lack a membrane-bound nucleus are called prokaryotes (from the Greek meaning before nuclei). These cells have few internal structures that are distinguishable under a microscope. Cells in the monera kingdom such as bacteria and cyanobacteria (also known as blue-green algae) are prokaryotes
What are eukaryotic cells?
Eukaryotic cells (from the Greek meaning truly nuclear) comprise all of the life kingdoms except monera. They can be easily distinguished through a membrane-bound nucleus.
The DNA of eukaryotic cells is wrapped around histones to form structures called:
nucleosomes
What is the difference between mRNA and tRNA?
Ribosomes are:
mRNA is the RNA that carries information during transcription and translation. It has codons, which match up with the anticodons on tRNA. tRNA is the RNA that bonds to amino acids and transfers them to ribosomes, and mRNA.
cytoplasmic granules composed of RNA and protein, at which protein synthesis takes place.
What is rRNA?
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is the central component of the ribosome, the protein manufacturing machinery of all living cells. The function of the rRNA is to provide a mechanism for decoding mRNA into amino acids and to interact with the tRNAs during translation by providing peptidyl transferase activity.
The raw material for protein synthesis in eukaryotes is:
aminoacyl tRNA
What does tRNA stand for and what is its function?
tRNA is a special type of RNA that on one end connects to an aminoacid, and on the other "end" (not actually the end of the nucleotides sequence) has a pair of three bases that for the anticodon, a sequence corresponding to a codon in the mRNA, which allows the tRNA to link with the mRNA, placing the aminoacid accordingly.
In comparison with ribosomes in prokaryotes, ribosomes in eukaryotes contain larger rRNAs and more what?
protein
What does mRNA stand for and what is its function?
Messenger or mRNA is a copy of the information carried by a gene on the DNA. The role of mRNA is to move the information contained in DNA to the translation machinery.
What does ATP stand for?
Adenosine Triphosphate
What is the chemical equation for ATP?
C10H16N5O13P3
What are nucleotides?
Molecules that comprise the structural units of RNA and DNA and play special roles in metabolism.
What is ATP?
A nucleotide that contains a large amount of chemical energy stored in its high-energy phosphate bonds. It releases energy when it is broken down(hydrolyzed) into ADP. (Aderosine Diphosphate) The Energy is used for many metabolic processes.Hence, ATP is considered as the universal energy currency for metabolism.
What occurs during DNA replication?
The DNA strands unwind, and the enzyme DNA polymerase unites nucleotides in each chain according to bases present in the old chain. The new strand then unites with an old strand to form 2 new double helix.
How many organ systems are found in the human?
10
What organ system produces motion of body parts and viscera?
The muscular system
What is the function of the skeletal system?
Supports the body, protects the organs, and produces blood cells.
The circulatory system does what?
Transports nutrients, wastes, gases(oxygen and carbon dioxide), hormones, blood cells throughout body;also protects body against foreign organisms.
What system responds to internal and external stimuli and regulates and coordinates body activities and movements?
The nervous system
What is the function of the integumentary system?
Limits and protects the body as a whole;prevents excess loss of water and functions in regulating body temperature.
What system enzymatically breaks down food materials into usable and absorbable nutrients.
The Digestive System
The respiratory system does what?
Functions in the exchange of gases(oxygen and carbon dioxide)
What system removes body wastes from bloodstream and helps regulate homeostasis of internal environment?
The urinary system
What is the function of the reproductive system?
perpetuates the living organism by the production of the sex cells(gametes) and future offspring
The endocrine system does what?
regulates body growth and function via hormones.
What are the 4 basic tissues?
Muscle, Nervous, Epithelial, and connective tissue.
What is another name for muscle cells?
myocytes
What are the 3 types of muscle?
Skeletal, Smooth, and Cardiac
What are the characteristics of the Cardiac muscle?
Striated and involuntary
This type of muscle is striated and voluntary?
skeletal
What are the two characteristics of smooth muscle?
non-striated and involuntary
Where is the location of the smooth muscles?
Walls of the digestive tract and blood vessels, uterus, and urinary bladder.
What tissue is composed of cells that respond to external and internal stimuli and have the capability to transmit an impulse from one area of the body to another?
The nervous tissue
? tissue covers the external surfaces of the body and lines the internal tubes and cavities. It also forms the glands of the body.
Epithelial tissue
What tissue is the packing and supporting material of the body tissues and organs and develops from mesoderm?
Connective tissue
The adult tissue that covers the surface of the human body is:
epithelium
The adult tissue that lines the lumen of the human digestive and respiratory passageways is:
epithelium
What tissue is derived from all three germ layers, is avascular, and lies on a connective tissue layer?
epithelial
What type of cells are multipotent and can differentiate into other types of cells?
mesenchymal cells
The adult tissue that is capable of rapid transmission of signals among parts of the human body is?
The nervous tissue
What is the function of connective tissue?
Supports the shape of the human body
The adult tissue whose mechanical properties are due to the extracellular material in the tissue is?
connective tissue
The tissue that forms most glands is?
epithelium
The adult tissue that can generate the most mechanical force by contraction is?
muscle
The position of a person standing erect, feet together and parallel, face forward, arms at sides, and palms forward is called what?
the anatomic position
Describe a midsagittal or median plane.
A verticle plane in the antero-posterior direction that divides the body into equal right and left halves.
What is a verticle plane parallel to the midsagittal plane;it allows longitudinal slices that are parallel to the median plane
Sagittal plane
What is the frontal or coronal plane?
A verticle plane that passes from side to side;it is at right angles to the midsagittal plane and cuts the specimen into anterior and posterior components
Describe a transverse , horizontal, or cross plane
A horizontal plane at right angles to both the sagittal and frontal plane; it cuts the specimen into superior(upper or cephalad) and inferior(lower or caudad) portions. Cross sections of the specimens are obtained
What is the endoskeleton?
The skeletal system of vertebrates
What are vertebrates?
All those beings with internal skeleton and a backbone.Another word for backbone is vertebra.
What skeleton is composed of bones of the upper and lower extremities?
The appendicular skeleton
The principle cells that form bone matrix is known as:
osteoblasts
Cells that are active in bone removal during remodeling are:
osteoclasts
??? gives origin to most of the skeletal system
mesoderm
Describe Mesoderm in detail
One of the three germ layers found in the embryos of animals more complex than cnidarians, making them triploblastic. Mesoderm forms in the embryo during gastrulation when some of the cells migrating inward to form the endoderm, produce an additional layer that lies between the endoderm and the ectoderm.

Mesoderm is found in all large, complex animals, and allows the formation of a coelom, which allows more room for independent growth of the body organs
The human bone tissue stores these two chemical elements
calcium and phosphate
What position describes the sole of the foot?
Plantar position
Where is the peripheral position?
away from the center of the body; toward the outside
What position is toward the center of the body and toward the inside?
Central position
What position is farther from the point of origin of a structure or farther from the reference point or the midline axis.
Distal position
Define Proximal position
Nearest a point of origin in general or nearest the trunk as far as the extremities are concerned;nearer the attachment to the body and nearer the midline axis.
Define Lateral position
farther from the midline;toward the side of the body or away from the midsagittal plane;to the side.
What position is toward the center of the body and toward the inside?
Central position
What position is farther from the point of origin of a structure or farther from the reference point or the midline axis.
Distal position
Define Proximal position
Nearest a point of origin in general or nearest the trunk as far as the extremities are concerned;nearer the attachment to the body and nearer the midline axis.
Define Lateral position
farther from the midline;toward the side of the body or away from the midsagittal plane;to the side.
where is the posterior or dorsal position located?
toward the back(the dorsum)of the body
Where is the anterior or ventral position located
toward the front of the body or belly side
What system provides support, protection of vital organs, sites for muscle attachment, storage sites for calcium and phosphates and sites for cell formation?
The human skeletal system
The ? skeleton consists of 80 bones forming the trunk(spine and thorax) and skull
axial
What consists of 22 bones fused together to form a rigid structure that houses and protects organs such as the brain, auditory apparatus, and eyes?
the skull
The axial skeleton consists of the vertebral column, the ribs and sternum, the skull, and the middle ear bones that are also known as what?
ossicles
Another part of the axial skeleton--the hyoid--is suspended in a portion of the neck by both muscles and what?
ligaments
The skull has how many bones?
22
This part of the axial skeleton has 26 bones?
vertebral column
How many bones do we have in our ribs?
24
What is the sternum?
a long flat bone located in the center of the thorax (chest). It connects to the rib bones via cartilage, forming the rib cage with them, and thus helps to protect the lungs, heart and major blood vessels from physical trauma.
What are the three ossicles?
malleus, incus, and stapes
What is the incus?
The incus is a small muscle in the ear which is connected to the eardrum and malleus. The malleus increases the loudness of sound that enters the ear.
How many bones does the appendicular skeleton have?
126 bones. 64 bones comprise the upper extremities and 62 bones comprise the lower extremities.
The thigh is considered the upper extremity. What is the bone associated with the thigh?
femur
What is the bone associated with the arm?
humerus
The clavicle and the scapula make up the bones of the
shoulder girdle
The bones associated with the forearm are
the radius and the ulna
What are the 2 bones associated with the leg?
The tibia and the fibula
How many tarsal bones does the foot have?
seven
The lower extremities, or legs, are attached to the axial skeleton via the ?
pelvic or hip girdle
What three bones make up the hip girdle?
ilium, pubis, and ischium
Why is a bone hard and rigid?
Because it consists of cells, or osteocytes, embedded in a calcified matrix.
All bones have a central marrow cavity. What fills these marrow cavities?
bone marrow
There are two types of bones in the skeleton. What are they?
Compact bone and Spongy bone
What 3 cells make up bone?
Osteocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts
What are the small canals in the bone that allow osteocytes to communicate with each other?
canaliculi
What type of cells arise from mesenchymal cells?
osteoblasts
Which cells are found during bone development and remodeling?
osteoclasts
What type of joints are immovable?
the sutures found between the bones of the cranium.
True or False. Most muscles in the body can be classified as striated muscles in reference to the fact that when observed under a light microscope the muscular tissue has light and dark bands or striations running across it.
True
What type of muscle cells serve as the pacemaker region and drive the contraction of the rest of the heart.
The Cardiac muscle cells
True of False. Skeletal muscle cells normally contract only in response to synaptic transmission released by the motor axon synapses with the muscle cell.
True
What type of muscle is part of the urinary bladder, uterus, spleen, gallbladder, and numerous other internal organs.
The smooth muscle
How many skeletal muscle assist the human being to carry out intricate movements.
650 skeletal muscles
What element is the most essential for muscular contraction?
calcium
A sustained contraction is called a
tetanus
Muscle contraction results when actin unites with what?
myosin
Vigorous exercise will cause muscle fatigue which is primarily due to?
the accumulation of lactic acid
The 3 muscle types are?
heart, smooth, and skeletal
Which muscle type is not under the control of the autonomic nervous system?
skeletal
What is the sarcomere?
It is the functional unit of the striated muscle.
A sarcomere on an electron micrograph is the region between where?
the two Z bands
True or False. A normal vertebrate skeletal muscle fiber cell is multinucleate and striated
true
What is ATP?
ATP is a nucleotide that contains a large amount of chemical energy stored in its high-energy phosphate bonds. It releases energy when it is broken down (hydrolyzed) into ADP (or Adenosine Diphosphate). The energy is used for many metabolic processes. Hence, ATP is considered as the universal energy currency for metabolism.

ATP is produced via cellular respiration in the mitochondria and photosynthesis in chloroplasts.

Its functions are for intracellular energy transport for various metabolic processes including biosynthetic reactions, motility, and cell division. It is also used as a substrate by kinases that phosphorylate proteins and lipids, and by adenylate cyclase to produce cyclic AMP.


Word origin: from abbreviation of adenosine triphosphate.