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158 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What are Alleles?
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Alleles are genes that occupy corresponding positions on homologous chromosomes
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What are homologous chromosomes?
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Homologous chromosomes are chromosomes in a biological cell that pair (synapse) during meiosis, or alternatively, non-identical chromosomes that contain information for the same biological features and contain the same genes at the same loci but possibly different genetic information, called alleles, at those genes. For example, two chromosomes may have genes encoding eye color, but one may code for brown eyes, the other for blue.
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What is Meiosis?
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It is the process of reductional division in which the number of of chromosomes per cell is halved. Before meiosis, DNA in the original cell is replicated.
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What are heterozygous chromosomes?
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Those that have two different alleles for a single trait
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What is Mitosis?
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The process in which a eukaryotic cell separates the chromosomes in its cell nucleus into two identical sets in two daughter nuclei.
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Phenotype may be defined as?
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a visible expression of the genotype
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Alleles are genes that:
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occupy corresponding positions on homologous chromosomes
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Seeds from a self-pollinated gold flowering plant produce 56 charcoal, 130 gold, and 61 beige flowering plants. The plant is:
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heterozygous with incomplete dominance
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A man with blood cell genotype B/O marries a woman with type A/B. Their offspring could have:
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A/B, B/B, A/O or B/O
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Two people are planning to have a family. The woman has blood type A/A and the man B/B. Their children will have the following:
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Blood type A/B only
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Twinning is an interesting biological phenomenon. Identical twins usually result from fertilization of:
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one egg by one sperm and separation of cells during early development
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What blood type is the universal recipient?
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Type AB
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What blood type is the universal donor?
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Type O
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What type(s) of blood can O receive
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O-can receive only O
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Type A blood types can only receive:
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Type A blood types can only receive Type A and Type O blood. Type B blood is its nemesis and vice versa
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What is a genotype?
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The genotype is the genetic constitution of a cell, an organism, or an individual (i.e. the specific allele makeup of the individual) usually with reference to a specific character under consideration
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A mink breeder finds that 50% of the offspring are aa. What genotype were their parents?
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Aa x aa
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During metaphase of mitosis:
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the centrioles with asters are at the opposite poles
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What is backcross and what does it seek to determine?
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A backcross consists of crossing a dominant phenotype with a pure homozygous recessive. In this manner a breeder can determine if the phenotype is heterozygous or homozygous. the backcross is used, therefore, to determine if a line is genotypically pure
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A hog breeder would use a backcross to:
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determine if a particular hog is genotypically pure
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Why is ATP considered the universal energy for metabolism?
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ATP is a nucleotide that contains a large amount of chemical energy stored in its high-energy phosphate bonds. It releases energy when it is broken down (hydrolyzed) into ADP (or Adenosine Diphosphate). The energy is used for many metabolic processes.
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The Enzyme for DNA replication is?
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DNA Polymerase
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The template for DNA replication is:
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DNA
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The Raw material for DNA replication is
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deoxyribonucletide triphosphate
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The Enzyme that catalyzes the replication of the leading strand during DNA replication in E.Coli is:
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DNA polymerase 3
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What is Catalysis?
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Catalysis is the process in which the rate of a chemical reaction is either increased or decreased by means of a chemical substance known as a catalyst
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What is an Okazaki fragment?
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An Okazaki fragment is a relatively short fragment of DNA (with an RNA primer at the 5' terminus) created on the lagging strand during DNA replication
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DNA replication in ???
produces one new strand continuously by adding nucleotides to the end of the strand. Replication of the other strand polymerizes nucleotides into short segments, then joins the segments using a ligase enzyme to form the other new strand. |
prokaryotes
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What is the function of DNA ligase in DNA replication in prokaryotes?
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to join adjacent Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand
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What is a ligase enzyme?
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In biochemistry, a ligase (from the Latin verb ligāre — "to bind" or "to glue together") is an enzyme that can catalyse the joining of two large molecules by forming a new chemical bond, usually with accompanying hydrolysis of a small chemical group pendant to one of the larger molecules. Generally ligase catalyses the following reaction:
Ab + C → A–C + b |
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what is a codon?
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three bases on an mRNA molecule that code for a specific amino acid
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What is an anti-codon?
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three bases on a tRNA molecule that match up with the codons (are complementary to them) on the mRNA.
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The template for RNA synthesis is?
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DNA
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In prokaryotes most amino acids are specified by ? in mRNA
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several different types of codons
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The information source for protein synthesis in prokaryotes is:
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mRNA
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What is ribonucleotide triphosphate?
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The Raw material for RNA synthesis
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Operon organization appears to be typical of most ? genes
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prokaryotic genes
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These are the traits in what cells:
1. No nuclear envelope 2. Unicellular 3. Frequently occurs in loosely organized colonies |
prokaryotic cells
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These describe what cells:
1. contain nuclear envelope 2. unicellular or multicellular 3. multiple cells in organized patterns |
eukaryotic cells
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What are lipids?
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Any fat soluble molecule such as fats, oils, waxes, cholesterol, sterils, and vitamins.
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RNA polymerase in E.coli:
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can initiate new RNA strands and add nucleotides to the 3' end of existing RNA strands
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RNA polymerase attaches to the ? region of a prokoryote operon to begin RNA synthesis
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promoter
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The enzyme for protein synthesis in prokoryotes is:
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part of the structure of the ribosome
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What is RNA?
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What is DNA?
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Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a type of molecule that consists of a long chain of nucleotide units. Each nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, a ribose sugar, and a phosphate. RNA acts as a messenger carrying instructions from the DNA to the ribosomes. RNA carries the blueprint for making the proteins from the DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes
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DNA(deoxyribose nucleic acid) is the material that makes up the genes and chromosomes in our cells. The genes and chromosomes carry the genetic blueprint that controls our bodies and makes each of us a unique individual.
The way this works is that the DNA carries a code for making proteins, and the different proteins that it tells our cells to make lead not only to the differences between various types of cells, but also the differences between each and every one of us. The DNA is in the nucleus of the cell, but the proteins are made in the ribosomes, which are microscopic structures in the cytoplasm of the cell, which surrounds the nucleus |
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What are prokaryotic cells?
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Cells that lack a membrane-bound nucleus are called prokaryotes (from the Greek meaning before nuclei). These cells have few internal structures that are distinguishable under a microscope. Cells in the monera kingdom such as bacteria and cyanobacteria (also known as blue-green algae) are prokaryotes
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What are eukaryotic cells?
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Eukaryotic cells (from the Greek meaning truly nuclear) comprise all of the life kingdoms except monera. They can be easily distinguished through a membrane-bound nucleus.
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The DNA of eukaryotic cells is wrapped around histones to form structures called:
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nucleosomes
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What is the difference between mRNA and tRNA?
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Ribosomes are:
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mRNA is the RNA that carries information during transcription and translation. It has codons, which match up with the anticodons on tRNA. tRNA is the RNA that bonds to amino acids and transfers them to ribosomes, and mRNA.
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cytoplasmic granules composed of RNA and protein, at which protein synthesis takes place.
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What is rRNA?
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Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is the central component of the ribosome, the protein manufacturing machinery of all living cells. The function of the rRNA is to provide a mechanism for decoding mRNA into amino acids and to interact with the tRNAs during translation by providing peptidyl transferase activity.
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The raw material for protein synthesis in eukaryotes is:
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aminoacyl tRNA
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What does tRNA stand for and what is its function?
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tRNA is a special type of RNA that on one end connects to an aminoacid, and on the other "end" (not actually the end of the nucleotides sequence) has a pair of three bases that for the anticodon, a sequence corresponding to a codon in the mRNA, which allows the tRNA to link with the mRNA, placing the aminoacid accordingly.
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In comparison with ribosomes in prokaryotes, ribosomes in eukaryotes contain larger rRNAs and more what?
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protein
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What does mRNA stand for and what is its function?
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Messenger or mRNA is a copy of the information carried by a gene on the DNA. The role of mRNA is to move the information contained in DNA to the translation machinery.
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What does ATP stand for?
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Adenosine Triphosphate
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What is the chemical equation for ATP?
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C10H16N5O13P3
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What are nucleotides?
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Molecules that comprise the structural units of RNA and DNA and play special roles in metabolism.
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What is ATP?
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A nucleotide that contains a large amount of chemical energy stored in its high-energy phosphate bonds. It releases energy when it is broken down(hydrolyzed) into ADP. (Aderosine Diphosphate) The Energy is used for many metabolic processes.Hence, ATP is considered as the universal energy currency for metabolism.
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What occurs during DNA replication?
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The DNA strands unwind, and the enzyme DNA polymerase unites nucleotides in each chain according to bases present in the old chain. The new strand then unites with an old strand to form 2 new double helix.
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How many organ systems are found in the human?
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10
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What organ system produces motion of body parts and viscera?
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The muscular system
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What is the function of the skeletal system?
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Supports the body, protects the organs, and produces blood cells.
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The circulatory system does what?
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Transports nutrients, wastes, gases(oxygen and carbon dioxide), hormones, blood cells throughout body;also protects body against foreign organisms.
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What system responds to internal and external stimuli and regulates and coordinates body activities and movements?
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The nervous system
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What is the function of the integumentary system?
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Limits and protects the body as a whole;prevents excess loss of water and functions in regulating body temperature.
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What system enzymatically breaks down food materials into usable and absorbable nutrients.
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The Digestive System
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The respiratory system does what?
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Functions in the exchange of gases(oxygen and carbon dioxide)
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What system removes body wastes from bloodstream and helps regulate homeostasis of internal environment?
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The urinary system
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What is the function of the reproductive system?
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perpetuates the living organism by the production of the sex cells(gametes) and future offspring
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The endocrine system does what?
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regulates body growth and function via hormones.
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What are the 4 basic tissues?
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Muscle, Nervous, Epithelial, and connective tissue.
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What is another name for muscle cells?
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myocytes
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What are the 3 types of muscle?
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Skeletal, Smooth, and Cardiac
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What are the characteristics of the Cardiac muscle?
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Striated and involuntary
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This type of muscle is striated and voluntary?
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skeletal
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What are the two characteristics of smooth muscle?
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non-striated and involuntary
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Where is the location of the smooth muscles?
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Walls of the digestive tract and blood vessels, uterus, and urinary bladder.
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What tissue is composed of cells that respond to external and internal stimuli and have the capability to transmit an impulse from one area of the body to another?
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The nervous tissue
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? tissue covers the external surfaces of the body and lines the internal tubes and cavities. It also forms the glands of the body.
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Epithelial tissue
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What tissue is the packing and supporting material of the body tissues and organs and develops from mesoderm?
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Connective tissue
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The adult tissue that covers the surface of the human body is:
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epithelium
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The adult tissue that lines the lumen of the human digestive and respiratory passageways is:
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epithelium
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What tissue is derived from all three germ layers, is avascular, and lies on a connective tissue layer?
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epithelial
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What type of cells are multipotent and can differentiate into other types of cells?
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mesenchymal cells
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The adult tissue that is capable of rapid transmission of signals among parts of the human body is?
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The nervous tissue
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What is the function of connective tissue?
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Supports the shape of the human body
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The adult tissue whose mechanical properties are due to the extracellular material in the tissue is?
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connective tissue
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The tissue that forms most glands is?
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epithelium
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The adult tissue that can generate the most mechanical force by contraction is?
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muscle
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The position of a person standing erect, feet together and parallel, face forward, arms at sides, and palms forward is called what?
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the anatomic position
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Describe a midsagittal or median plane.
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A verticle plane in the antero-posterior direction that divides the body into equal right and left halves.
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What is a verticle plane parallel to the midsagittal plane;it allows longitudinal slices that are parallel to the median plane
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Sagittal plane
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What is the frontal or coronal plane?
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A verticle plane that passes from side to side;it is at right angles to the midsagittal plane and cuts the specimen into anterior and posterior components
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Describe a transverse , horizontal, or cross plane
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A horizontal plane at right angles to both the sagittal and frontal plane; it cuts the specimen into superior(upper or cephalad) and inferior(lower or caudad) portions. Cross sections of the specimens are obtained
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What is the endoskeleton?
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The skeletal system of vertebrates
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What are vertebrates?
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All those beings with internal skeleton and a backbone.Another word for backbone is vertebra.
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What skeleton is composed of bones of the upper and lower extremities?
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The appendicular skeleton
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The principle cells that form bone matrix is known as:
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osteoblasts
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Cells that are active in bone removal during remodeling are:
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osteoclasts
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??? gives origin to most of the skeletal system
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mesoderm
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Describe Mesoderm in detail
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One of the three germ layers found in the embryos of animals more complex than cnidarians, making them triploblastic. Mesoderm forms in the embryo during gastrulation when some of the cells migrating inward to form the endoderm, produce an additional layer that lies between the endoderm and the ectoderm.
Mesoderm is found in all large, complex animals, and allows the formation of a coelom, which allows more room for independent growth of the body organs |
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The human bone tissue stores these two chemical elements
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calcium and phosphate
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What position describes the sole of the foot?
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Plantar position
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Where is the peripheral position?
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away from the center of the body; toward the outside
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What position is toward the center of the body and toward the inside?
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Central position
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What position is farther from the point of origin of a structure or farther from the reference point or the midline axis.
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Distal position
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Define Proximal position
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Nearest a point of origin in general or nearest the trunk as far as the extremities are concerned;nearer the attachment to the body and nearer the midline axis.
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Define Lateral position
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farther from the midline;toward the side of the body or away from the midsagittal plane;to the side.
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What position is toward the center of the body and toward the inside?
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Central position
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What position is farther from the point of origin of a structure or farther from the reference point or the midline axis.
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Distal position
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Define Proximal position
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Nearest a point of origin in general or nearest the trunk as far as the extremities are concerned;nearer the attachment to the body and nearer the midline axis.
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Define Lateral position
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farther from the midline;toward the side of the body or away from the midsagittal plane;to the side.
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where is the posterior or dorsal position located?
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toward the back(the dorsum)of the body
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Where is the anterior or ventral position located
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toward the front of the body or belly side
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What system provides support, protection of vital organs, sites for muscle attachment, storage sites for calcium and phosphates and sites for cell formation?
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The human skeletal system
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The ? skeleton consists of 80 bones forming the trunk(spine and thorax) and skull
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axial
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What consists of 22 bones fused together to form a rigid structure that houses and protects organs such as the brain, auditory apparatus, and eyes?
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the skull
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The axial skeleton consists of the vertebral column, the ribs and sternum, the skull, and the middle ear bones that are also known as what?
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ossicles
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Another part of the axial skeleton--the hyoid--is suspended in a portion of the neck by both muscles and what?
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ligaments
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The skull has how many bones?
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22
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This part of the axial skeleton has 26 bones?
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vertebral column
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How many bones do we have in our ribs?
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24
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What is the sternum?
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a long flat bone located in the center of the thorax (chest). It connects to the rib bones via cartilage, forming the rib cage with them, and thus helps to protect the lungs, heart and major blood vessels from physical trauma.
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What are the three ossicles?
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malleus, incus, and stapes
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What is the incus?
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The incus is a small muscle in the ear which is connected to the eardrum and malleus. The malleus increases the loudness of sound that enters the ear.
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How many bones does the appendicular skeleton have?
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126 bones. 64 bones comprise the upper extremities and 62 bones comprise the lower extremities.
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The thigh is considered the upper extremity. What is the bone associated with the thigh?
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femur
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What is the bone associated with the arm?
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humerus
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The clavicle and the scapula make up the bones of the
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shoulder girdle
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The bones associated with the forearm are
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the radius and the ulna
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What are the 2 bones associated with the leg?
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The tibia and the fibula
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How many tarsal bones does the foot have?
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seven
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The lower extremities, or legs, are attached to the axial skeleton via the ?
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pelvic or hip girdle
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What three bones make up the hip girdle?
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ilium, pubis, and ischium
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Why is a bone hard and rigid?
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Because it consists of cells, or osteocytes, embedded in a calcified matrix.
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All bones have a central marrow cavity. What fills these marrow cavities?
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bone marrow
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There are two types of bones in the skeleton. What are they?
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Compact bone and Spongy bone
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What 3 cells make up bone?
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Osteocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts
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What are the small canals in the bone that allow osteocytes to communicate with each other?
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canaliculi
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What type of cells arise from mesenchymal cells?
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osteoblasts
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Which cells are found during bone development and remodeling?
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osteoclasts
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What type of joints are immovable?
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the sutures found between the bones of the cranium.
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True or False. Most muscles in the body can be classified as striated muscles in reference to the fact that when observed under a light microscope the muscular tissue has light and dark bands or striations running across it.
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True
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What type of muscle cells serve as the pacemaker region and drive the contraction of the rest of the heart.
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The Cardiac muscle cells
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True of False. Skeletal muscle cells normally contract only in response to synaptic transmission released by the motor axon synapses with the muscle cell.
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True
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What type of muscle is part of the urinary bladder, uterus, spleen, gallbladder, and numerous other internal organs.
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The smooth muscle
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How many skeletal muscle assist the human being to carry out intricate movements.
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650 skeletal muscles
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What element is the most essential for muscular contraction?
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calcium
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A sustained contraction is called a
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tetanus
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Muscle contraction results when actin unites with what?
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myosin
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Vigorous exercise will cause muscle fatigue which is primarily due to?
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the accumulation of lactic acid
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The 3 muscle types are?
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heart, smooth, and skeletal
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Which muscle type is not under the control of the autonomic nervous system?
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skeletal
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What is the sarcomere?
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It is the functional unit of the striated muscle.
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A sarcomere on an electron micrograph is the region between where?
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the two Z bands
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True or False. A normal vertebrate skeletal muscle fiber cell is multinucleate and striated
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true
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What is ATP?
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ATP is a nucleotide that contains a large amount of chemical energy stored in its high-energy phosphate bonds. It releases energy when it is broken down (hydrolyzed) into ADP (or Adenosine Diphosphate). The energy is used for many metabolic processes. Hence, ATP is considered as the universal energy currency for metabolism.
ATP is produced via cellular respiration in the mitochondria and photosynthesis in chloroplasts. Its functions are for intracellular energy transport for various metabolic processes including biosynthetic reactions, motility, and cell division. It is also used as a substrate by kinases that phosphorylate proteins and lipids, and by adenylate cyclase to produce cyclic AMP. Word origin: from abbreviation of adenosine triphosphate. |