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292 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What are the six main elements of life?
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Sulphur, phosphorus, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen
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Hydrogen bonds
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Weak bonds between water molecules
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Capillary action
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The ability of water to rise of the roots, trunks, and branches of trees due to cohesion (water sticks to itself) and adhesion (water sticks to other stuff)
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alkaline
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basic solutions (as in the oposite of acidic)
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glycosidic bond
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the bond formed between two glucose molecules after dehyration synthesis/condensation.
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Plastids
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Structure in plants used for "stockpiling" alpha glucose.
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What are the four parts of an amino acid?
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an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen group, and an R group (or side chain)
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dipeptide
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When teo amino acids join.
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Peptide bond
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The bond between two amino acids
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What does a typical fat molecule consist of?
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three fatty acids and one molecule of glycerol
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Ester bonds
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The bonds formed between the glycerol molecule and the fatty acids.
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Phospholipids
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Have two fatty acid tails and one negatively charged phosphate "head." Make up membranes.
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What does a nucleotide consist of?
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Sugar, phosphate, base
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Oparin and Haldane
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First proposed that the primitive atmosphere contained methane, ammonia, hydrogen, and water.
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Miller Urey experiment
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confirmed that an atmophere of methane, ammonia, hydrogen, and water when electrecuted to simulate lightning, could result in the creation of macromolecules.
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heterotroph hypothesis
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The earliest lifeforms were most likely heterotrophs.
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integral proteins
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proteins that cross the entire phospholipid bilayer
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transmembrane proteins
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proteins that penetrate only partially into the bilayer
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adhesion proteins
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Form junctions between adjacent cells
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receptor proteins
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docking sites for proteins of the extracellular matrix or hormones
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transport proteins
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Use ATP for active transport. eg. sodium potassium pump
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Channel proteins
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proteins that selectively allow the passage of certain ions or molecules
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Recognition and adhesion proteins
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Proteins on cell's surface that play a role in cell recognition and adhesion.
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Cholesterol
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A fat and a steroid. Help stabilize membrane fluidity in animal cells.
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Nucleoid
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The area in a prokaryote where genetic information is stored.
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Nucleolus
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A structure within the nucleus where rRNA is made and ribosomes are assembled.
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Ribosomes
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The sites of protein synthesis. Composed of RNA and proteins. Can be free floating or attached to rough ER.
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Endoplasmic Reticulum
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A continuous region that extends into the cytoplasm. Rough ER has ribosomes that are to be exported. Smooth ER makes lipids, hormones, and steroids and breaks down toxic chemicles.
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Golgi bodies
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Golgi bodies modify, process and sort proteins.
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Lysosomes
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Tiny sacs that carry digestive enzymes that break down waste.
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Cytoskeleton
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A network of fibers that keep the shape of the cell. Include microtubules and micromflaments.
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Microtubulins
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Made up of the protein tubulin. Found in centrioles, cilia, and flagella.
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Channel proteins
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Aid in facilitate diffusion/transport
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pinocytosis
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endocytosis "drinking" (Think pina colada)
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phagocytosis
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endocytosis "eating"
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bulk flow
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The one way movement of fluids brought about by pressure.
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dialysis
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the diffusion of solutes across a selectively permeable membrane
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Desmosomes
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Hold adjacent animal cells tightly to each other, like a rivet.
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Gap Junctions
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Proteins complexes that form channels in membranes and allow communication between the cytoplasm of adjacent animals cells.
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Tight junctions
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tight connections between the membranes of adjacent animal cells. Can seal off cavities and prevent leaks.
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Glycolysis
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Takes place in the cytolplasm Uses: Glucose, 2ATP, and 2NAD
Produces: 4 ATP, two pyruvic acids, 2 NADH Net ATP: 2 |
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Formation of acetyl coA
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Takes place in the cytoplasm
Uses: 2 Pyruvic Acid, 2 Coenzyme A, 2NAD Produces: 2 Acetyl CoA, 2 CO@ and 2NADH No ATP Produced |
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Krebs cycle
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Takes place in mitochondrial matrix, 2 ATP produced and NADH and FADH2 electrons carriers
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Oxidative phsphorylation
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Takes place in the inner mitochondrial membrane, net production of 32 ATP
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Pyruvic acid
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Three carbon molecule. Made in glycolysis.
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Exergonic reaction
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Energy released, products have less energy than the reactants
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Endergonic reaction
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requires energy, products have more energy than reactants
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cuticle
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a waxy covering produced by the upper epidermis
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palidase parenchyma
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cells of a plant just below the upper epidermis that contain a lot of chloropasts
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stroma
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the fluid filled region inside of a cholorpast
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grana
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structures within the choloplasts that look like stacks of coins
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thykaloid
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The disk like structures that make up grana. Contain chlorophyll and enzymes involved in photosynthesis.
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spongy parenchyma
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below the palidase parenchyma, allow for diffusion of gas (especially CO2) within the leaf.
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vascular bundles
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found in the spongy parenchyma. include the xylem and phloem
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stomate
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Found at the lower epidermis. Allow for gas exchange and transpiration
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Gaurd cells
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control the opening and closing of the stomates
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antenna pigments
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gathered light and bounce the energy to the reaction center
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The central doctrine of molecular biology
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DNA>RNA>Proteins
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helicase
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the enzyme that unwinds the double helix by breaking the H bonds.
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origins of replication
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the specific spots where DNA replication begins
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topoisomerases
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cut and rejoin the helix to prevent tangling
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DNA polymerase
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adds nucleotides to DNA strand
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RNA primer
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a short strand of RNA nucleotides which helps the DNA polymerase
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DNA ligase
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connects Okazaki fragments
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RNA primase
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catalyzes the synthesis of RNA primers
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What are the purines?
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adenine and Guanine
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What are the pyrimidines?
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Cytosine Thymine
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euchromatin
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the loose form of gentic material
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heterochromatin
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the condensed form of genetic material
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phosphodiester bonds
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the bonds that link nucelotides together
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mRNA
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messenger, copies the information stored in the strand of DNA
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rRNA
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ribosomal, makes up part of the ribosomes
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tRNA
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transfer, shuttles amino acids to the ribosomes
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telomerase
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maintains chromosome length so that cells can continue to divide
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promoter
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the region of DNA where RNA polymerase first binds to a gene
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pyrophosphate
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released when a new nucleotide is added to the RNA strand. "Powers" transcription
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exon
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coding regions of DNA, good
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intron
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the non coding regions of DNA. must be removed from RNA.
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poly A tail
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added to the 3' end of RNA
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5' cap
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added to the 5' end of RNA
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codon
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a group of three bases that corresponds to one of 20 amino acids
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operon
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the region of bacterial DNA that regulates gene expression
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structural genes
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genes that code for enzymes needed in a chemical reaction
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operator
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a region that controls whther transcription will occur
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regulatory gene
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does for repressor proteins which are capable of binding to the operator and stopping transcription
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inducer
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causes the repressor to fall of the operator. turns on transcription
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interphase
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the time span from one cell division to another, contains G1, S, and G2. all the chromosomes are duplicated
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centromere
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structure that holds sister chromatids together
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What is the order of events in mitosis?
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Interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
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Prophase
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nucelolus disappears, chromosomes become distinct and visible, spindle fibers form
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Metaphase
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The chromosomes line up
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Anaphase
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The sister chromatids separate and migrate to opposite poles
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Telophase
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The final stage of mitosis, nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes and nucleoli reappear
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Cleavage furrow
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Spot where cytoplasm splits in animal cells during cytokenisis(cell plate forms in plants)
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How many chromosomes do diploid human cells have?
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46
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How many chromosomes do haploid human cells have?
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23
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germ cells
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sex cells, produce haploid cells
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synapsis
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occurs in prophase I of meiosis. chromosomes line up side by side with their homologues
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crossing over
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occurs during prophase I, exchange of segments between homologus chromosomes
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tetrad
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also know as bivalent, consists of four chromatids (two attached chromosomes)
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chiasmata
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places where homologus chromosomes are held together
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somatic cells
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not sex cells, diploid
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nondisjunction
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messed up meiosis, genetic defects
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translocation
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a segment of chromosome moves to another chromosome
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inversion
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a segment of chromosome is inserted in the reverse orientation
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deletion
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a segment of chromosome is lost
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duplication
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an extra copy of a chromosomal segment is introduced
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transposons
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DNA segments that have the ability to move around the genome. can cause mutations
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locus
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the position of a gene on a chromosome
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Incomplete dominance
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When traits blend (ex. red and white=pink)
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codominance
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An equal expression of both alleles (ex. AB blood type)
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polygenetic inheritance
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a trait that results from the interaction of many genes (height, skin color, weight)
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epistasis
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the genes at one locus influence the expression of genes at another locus
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pleiotrophy
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one allele can affect a number of characteristics of an organism (eg sickle cell anemia)
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linked genes
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genes on the same chromosomes that are usually inherrited together (the same probability rules don't apply)
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Barr body
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and x chromosome that is condensed and visible
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What is the order of classification from most general to most specific
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Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
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Archea
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Live in extreme environments, more recent than Bacteria/Monera
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Cyanobacteria
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bacteria that does photosynthesis
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Peptidoglycan cell wall
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Thick one found in gram positive bacteria.
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Cocci
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spherical bacteria
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Bacilli
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Rod shaped bacteria
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spirilli
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corkscrew bacteria
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Binary fisson
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The way that bacteria reproduce asexually
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Transformation
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When bacteria pick up naked DNA from the environment
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conjugation
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When two bacteria form little bridges called pili between one abother to transfer genetic material.
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Transduction
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When a virus carries some DNA from one bacterium to another during the process of infection.
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Legumes
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Plants that have a mutualistic relationship with nitrogen-fixing bacteria
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Euglenophyta
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Unicellular, chorophyll a and b, flagella, eyespot that allows them to react to light
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Dinoflagellata
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unicellular, aquatic, photosynthetic pigments, two flagella, cell walls that contain cellulose, bioluminescent
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Sporozoa
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nonmotile, parasitic, spore-formers, amoeboid body form, include plasmodium which causes malaria
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myxomycota
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slime molds, multinucleated masses
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fungi
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multicellular, cell walls that are made of chitin, some (like yeast) unicellular, feed using hyphae, reproduce by spores or budding
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bryophyte
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Anchor themselves in the soil through rhizoids, primitive plants, have flagellated sperm, mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. Gametophyte stage is dominant.
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pterophyta
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seedless ferns, vascular, alternation of generation, dominant stage is sporophyte generation,vascular
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spenophyta
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vascular plants, horsetails, scalelike leaves, wet marshy habitats
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zoomastigina
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zooflagellates, unicellular protozoans, flagellum, african sleeping sickness
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rhizopoda
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ameobas, phagocytosis, pseudopods
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ciliophora
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unicellular protozoans, paramecium, two nuceli, oral groove, contractile vacuoles
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Lycophyta
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Club mosses
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confiers
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woody plants that bear their seeds in cones, secondary growth
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Angiosperms
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The flowering plant. Seeds enclosed in fruit or nut.
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Monocots
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single cotyledon, flower parts in multiples of threes, vascular tissues in scattered bundles, fibrous root system, leaves with parallel veins
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cotyledon
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the embryonic seed leaf
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dicots
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Have two cotyledons, flowers in fours or fives, vascular tissue in distinct bundles arranged in a circle, taproot system, leaves with netted veins
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acoeloms
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animals with no body cavities
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pseudocoeloms
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animals with a body cavity lined with tissue not completely derived from the mesoderm
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coeloms
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animals with a body cavity lined with mesoderm
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Protostomes
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undergo spiral cleavage, the mouth forms first
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deuterostomes
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undergo radial cleavage, the anus forms first
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Porifera
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sponges, sessile, two cell layers
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cnidaria
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two-cell layered body with a digestive cavity surrounded by tenticles, jelly firsh, sea anemones
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platyhelminthes
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flatworms, acoelomates, can regenrate body parts
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nematoda
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roundworms, pseudocoelomate
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Rotifers
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tiny filter feeders with complex, complete digestive system
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mollusca
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motile, clams, octipi, snails, protostomes, coelomates
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annelida
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segmented worms with two openings, earthworms
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arthropoda
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segmented bodies, pair, jointed legs, chitinous exoskeleton, insects
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echidnodermata
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sessile, first duterostomes, sea urchin
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Chordata
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notochord, dorsal nerve chord, postnatal tail, pharyngeal fill slits, most are vertebrates but not all
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fish
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coldblooded, twochambered heart
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amphibians
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gas exchange through, gills, lungs, and skin, three-chambered heart
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reptilia
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reptiles are coldblooded, eggs with chitinous covering, four chambered heart, internal fertilization
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aves
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birds, warm-blooded, eggs with shells, four chambered heart
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mammalia
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warm-blooded, four chambered heart
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lysis
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the way viruses reproduce, attach to host cell, virus injects nucelic acid into host cell, virus parts reproduce, new viruses are released
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xylem
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takes water and minerals up a plant from its roots. contain long, thin, tracheids and short thick vessel elements
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phloem
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carries glucose down through the plants. made up of sieve tube elements and companion cells
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gymnosperms
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Woody plants like evergreens and firs. Perennial (live year after year)
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alternation of generation
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Plants spend part of their lives as haploids and part as diploids
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gametophyte
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haploid plant, produces haploid gametes
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sporophyte
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diploid plant, produces haploid spores by meiosis
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Tracheophyte
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Has "tubes" sporophyte generation is dominant.
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Meristems
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unspecialized, actively dividing cells.
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Primary growth
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increases the length of the stem through apical meristems
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secondary growth
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increase the girth of the plant through lateral meristems
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Vascular cambium
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produces secondary xylem and secondary phloem. produced by lateral meristems
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Lenticels
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spongy spots in the bark that allow for gas exchange
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Stamen
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The male part of the flower, consist of the anther and the filament (thin stalk that holds up anther)
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anther
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produces pollen grains
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Pistil
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The female parts of a flower. Includes stigma, style, and ovary.
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Stigma
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the sticky portion of the pistil that captures the pollen grains.
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Style
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A tube like structure that connects the stigma with the ovary
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Ovules
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plant's version of female gameteophytes
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Endosperm
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triploid structure in plants formed from one sperm nuculeus and two polar nuclei to serve as food (often in the form of fruit) for the diploid plant embryo.
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Epicotyl
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The part at the tip of the plant during seedling development that will become the stems and leaves
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hypocotyl
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The stem below the cotyldons in early seedling development that will eventually ebcome the roots of the plant.
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Radicle
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a well defined embryonic root
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phytochrome
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The light receptor in plants involved in photoperiodism. Inhibits flowering in short-day plants and induces flowering in long day plants.
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Vegetative propogation
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asexual plant reproduction (bulbs, runners, tubers, grafting)
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Thigmotropism
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How plants respond to touch (ivy growing on plants or trellis)
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Gibberellins
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Promote stem elongation, make dwarf plants bigger
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Cytokins
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Promote cell division and differentiation
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Ethylene
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Induces leaf abscission and promotes fruit ripening
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Abscisic acid
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Inhibits leaf abscission and promotes bud and seed dormancy
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Auxins
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Promote plant growth and phototrophism
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intracellular digestion
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digestion occurs within food vacuoles
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extracellular digestion
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a digestive tract. food is digested in a gastrovascular cavity. complete path from moth to anus.
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salivary amylase
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digests starch
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bolus
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chewed food
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peristalsis
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wavelike movement of the esophagus that moves food downward
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stomach
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secretes pepsin which breaks down protein,temporarily stores ingested food, kills bacteria
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chyme
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the partially digested food that leaves the stomach and goes into the small intestine
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small intestine
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breaks down all types of macromolecules. divided into duodenum, jejunum, and the ileum
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pancreas
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secretes enzymes the break down all types of macromolecules.
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bile
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NOT a digestive enzyme. an emulsifier, mechanically breaks up fats into smaller fat droplets. made in the liver and stored in the gall bladder
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villi
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absorb broken down food in the small intestine
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lacteals
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lymph vessels within each villus that absorb fatty acids
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large intestine
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absorbs water and salts
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epiglottis
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a flap that covers the trachea to prevent food from going down
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hemoglobin
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iron containing protein in red blood cells that transports oxygen
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chemoreceptors
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as blood pH decreases, chemorecptors send nerve impulses to the diaphragm to increase your respitory rate
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aorta
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the largest artery in the body. where blood first goes after it leaves the left atrium
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sinoatrial node
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the heart's pacemaker
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systole
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the contraction of the heart
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diastole
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the relaxation of the heart
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bone marrow
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where red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets are made
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complement proteins
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part of the immune system. lyse the cell walls of antigens
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interferons
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inhibit viral replication
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t-cells
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part of the immune system, made in the bone marrow, mature in the thymus. fight antigens in various ways
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b-lymphocytes
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help produce antibodies
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nephrons
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make up the kidney.
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Bowman's capsule
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the spot where blood enters the nephron
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vasopressin
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antidiuretic hormone, allows water to be reabsorbed from collecting duct if you are dehydrated
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aldosterone
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responsible for regulating sodium reabsorbtion
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subcutaneous tissue
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hyperdermis, lowest skin layer
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stratum corneum
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form a barrier against invading microorganisms.
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ganglia
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clumps of nerve cells. like primative brains
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nueron cell body
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contains the nucelus and all the usual organelles found in the cytoplasm
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dendrites
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short extensions of neuron cell body that receive stimuli
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axon
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long slender entension of a neuron that transmits an impulse from the cell body to another neuron or to an organ
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sensory neurons
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receive impulses from the environment and bring them to the body.
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motor neuron
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transmits impulses to muscles or glands to produce a response (muscle contracts, gland secretes something)
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interneurons
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the link between sensory and motor neuron. found in the brain or the spinal chord
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myelin
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coating on nerve impulse which speeds up signal transition by "jumping"
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central nervous system
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includes neurons in the brain and spinal chord
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peripheral nervous system
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all the body neurons NOT in the brain and spinal chord
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somatic nervous system
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controls voluntary action
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autonomic nervous system
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controls nonvoluntary activities
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sympathetic nervous system
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controls "fight-or-flight" response. part of autonomic system
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parasympathetic nervous system
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brings body back to homeostasis after "flight-or-fight" response is able to pass
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cerebrum
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controls all voluntary activities; receives and interprets sensory information; largest part of human brain
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cerebellum
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coordinates muscle activity
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hypothalamus
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regulates homeostasis and secretes hormones; regulates pituitary gland
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medulla
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controls involuntary actions such as breathing, swallowing heartbeat, and respiration
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bone
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CONNECTIVE TISSUE, contains nerves and blood vessels, made up of collagen and calcium slats
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cartilidge
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lacks nerves and blood vessels, found in the embroynic stages of all vertebrae
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ligaments
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attach bones to bones
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tendon
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attach bones to muscles
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skeletal muscle
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voluntarily controlled, striated, has several nuclei, attached to bones, long nonbranching cells, body locomotion
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cardiac muscle
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involuntarily controlled, has single nucelus, intercalated discs, heart
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smooth muscle
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involuntarily controlled, single nucleus, found in walls of stomach, uterus, and arteries (moves stuff along), spindle shaped cells, changes volume of internal organs, striated
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Growth hormone
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stimulates growth throughout the body, targets bones and muscles
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Adrenocorticotropic hormone
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stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete stuff
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thyroid stimulating hormone
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stimulates the thyroid to secrete thyroxine. thyroxine regulates metabolic rates. hyperthyroidism means you have too much and are skinny and "hyper". hypothyrodism, too little, fat and slow
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follicle stimulating hormone
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stimulates the follicle to grow in females and spermatogenesis in males
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lutenizing hormone
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causes the release of the ovum during the menstrual cycle and testosterone production in males
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oxytocin
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stimulates contraction of uterus and ducts of mammary glands
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insulin
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secreted by pancreas, decreases glucose levels in the blood
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glucagon
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secreted by pancreas, increases glucose level in the blood
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estrogen
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promotes female secondary sex charcteristics and thickens endometrium lining (lining of the uterus, blood part of period), secreted by the ovaries
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progesterone
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maintains endometrial lining, secreted by the ovaries
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testosterone
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promotes male secondary sex characteristic and spermatogenesis
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ectoderm
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outside layer of "skin", produces the epidermis, the skin, the eyes, and the nervous system
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endoderm
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inside layer of "skin", produces the innter linings of the digestive tract and respiratory tract and acessory organs like the pancreas, gall bladder, and liver
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mersoderm
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middle layer of "skin", produces bones, muscles, excretory, circulatory, and reproductive systems
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yolk sac
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provides food for the embryo
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amnion
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forms a fluid-filled sac that protects the embryo
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allantois
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extraembryonic membrane, membrane involved in gas exchange, stores uric acid
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chorion
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extraembryonic membrane, outermost membrane, surrounds all other extraembryonic membranes
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placenta
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provides fetus with nutrients and oxygen, gets rid of fetus's wastes
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umbilical cord
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connects the embryo to the placenta
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homeotic genes
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control development of the embryo
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homologus structures
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Same structure, different function
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analogous structure
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same function, structurely different
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directional selection
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one of the phenotypes is favored at an etreme end of normal distribution
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stabilizing selection
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organisms with extreme traits in a population are eliminated. favors "average" individuals
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disruptive selection
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favors both ends of extreme traits. sometimes causes two new species
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divergent evolution
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one species diverges into two. each species has the same common ancestor
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convergent evolution
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two unrelated species have similar traits because of environmental pressures
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allopatric speciation
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geographical barrier
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sympatric separation
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no geographic barrier, other facots may prevent from reproduction
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classical conditioning
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when an animal has been conditioned to act a certain way when it receives a certain cue. eg. dog running for food when it hears the can opener
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associative learning
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pavlov's dogs
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operant condition
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an animal learns to perform an act in order to receive a reward
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habituation
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when an animal learns to not respond to a spimulus (they get used to it)
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circadian rhythms
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internal clocks
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Agonistic behavior
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agressive behavior
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dominance hierarchies
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when members in a group have determined which members are dominant (alpha male)
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altrustic behavior
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an unselfish behavior that benefits another organism in the group at the individuals expense.
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tundra
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northen region, few trees, grasses, permafrost, cold favoring animals
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taiga
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northern forests, conifers, cold winters, cool weather animals
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