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165 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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3 types of cerebral ischemia
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thrombosis (blood clot)
embolism (like traveling embolism) arteriosclerosis (building of plaque in arteries) |
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Brain damage associated with excessive
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glutamate
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motor system is also known as
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efferent system
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automization vs deautomization
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Habits that are built vs habits that bring awareness into present (meditating, breathing etc..)
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what is the final destination of the sensory system
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the association cortex
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somatosensory
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touch
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posterior parietal lobe
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recieves visual, auditory and somatorsensory information. Also body and object orientation
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damage to the posterior parital lobe can cause apraxia and contralateral neglect
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apraxia: ex) ask someone to tie their shoe lace and they can't. They cannot associate command to behaviour.
contralateral neglect: ie posterior parietal neglect. PErson loses control and awareness to opposite side of damage |
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Dorsolateral Prefrontal association cortex
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evaluation and initialtion of voluntary movements
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Libets study of volition
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Study of free-will/making a choice. use EEG to dtect moment before a decision is made. currently about 350ms before
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Visual transduction
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Conversion of light into neural signals by visual receptors
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rhodopsin
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the photopigment of rods. In dim light our sensitivity to various wavelengths is a direct consequence of rhodopsins ability to absorb them
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What type of protein is rhodopsin?
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G protein (responds to light instead of neurotransmitters)
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What happens when light bleaches rhodopsin
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Light has an inhibitory response on rhodopsin. Na+ channels close and as a result the rods become hyperpolerized and release less glutamate
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Name and describe the most widely known and studied visual pathway
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retina-geneculate-striate pathway
Connect signals from the retian to the primary visual cortex (or straite) via the lateral geniculide nuclei of the thalamus |
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Brief muscle stimulaton will cause _______ while longer stimulation will cause _________
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single muscle activity, complex sequence of movements ending in a "target position" target position will aslways be some endpoint
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The binding problem:
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No known cortical area is dedicated to integrating perception
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Wavelength is also known as ______ and is from ____ to ____nanometers
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hue 400-700nm
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3 physical features of energy
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hue (wavelength)
saturation (complexity) amplitude (brightness) |
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Visual illusions
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When visual system is tricked into seeing something that is hasnt
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Fuctions of the pupil (3)
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Sesitivity
acuity (smaller the pupil the sharper the image) protection |
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fortification illusions
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happen to 20% people with migraines
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Light can be though of in two ways
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1) individual particles of energy travelling through space at 300,000 km/second (photons)
2) waves of energy |
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Adjustment of pupil size is a compromise between _____ and _____
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sensitivity and acuity
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cilary lens
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adjusts the tension on ligaments holding the lens in place
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accomodation
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The process of adjusting the configuration of the lenses to brng images into focus (flat for far, curved for close)
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Binocular disperity
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The difference in position of the same image on the two retinas. It is greater for close objects than for those further away.
-> visual system can create a 3D perception from two dimentional retinal images |
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5 layers of retina
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retinal ganglion cells-amacrine cells-bipolar cells-horizontal cells- cone and rod receptors
(amaacrine cells and horizontal cells-> specialized for lateral communication) |
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How is the retina in a sense inside out
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light reaches receptors only after passing through the rest of the other layers
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Two problems caused b it beign "inside out"
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creates blind spot , images can be distorted by retinal tissue
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duplexity theory
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theory than cones and rods mediate different vision
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Difference between photopic and scotopic vision can result in part from differences in the convergence between the two systems, explain.
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In scotopic vision the output of sevral HUNDRED rods converge on a single retinal ganglion whereas in photopic vision only a few cones converge on each ganglion cell to receice imput from only a few cones
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The spacing of rods is not the same in the two hemirtinas, where are there more rods?
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There are more rods in the nasal hemiretina than the temporal hemiretina
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Purkinje effect
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in intense light RED YELLOW wavelength look brighter than blue or green wavelegths blue in dim light blue and green look more instense
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Why doesnt the world vanish every time we blink?
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constant scannign with the eyes, temporal intergration
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fixational eye movements (3 types)
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tremors, drifts and saccades
Even when we fix our gaze on an object our eyes continually move. |
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what are saccades
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Saccades are quick, simultaneous movements of both eyes in the same direction
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What would happen if our eye movemtns were artificially stopped?
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Images would start to reappear and dissapear
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Surface interpolation
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The process by which we perceive surfaces
The visual system extracts information about edges and from it it infers the apperance of large surfaces. (counterintuitive) |
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Retinotropic
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organized like the primary primary visual cortex according to a map of the retina. Means that two stimuli presented to adjacent area of the retina excite adjacent neurons at all levels of the system.
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___% of primary visual cortex is dedicated to fovea
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25
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If an array of electrods are pointed on the _______of pateints who are blind they will see what is being stimulated
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primary visual coretx
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cerebellum
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Has more neurons than any other part of the brain
Monitors motor activity and sesnory feedback |
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Where is the center for midcourse correction , precision guidance of movement and behaviour organization
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cerebellum
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substancia nigra
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Nigro striatal bundle-> primary sensory feedback for movements.
PARKINSON involves damage to this area The substantia nigra lies in the midbrain immediately dorsal to the cerebral peduncles. This nucleus is an important motor center that will be discussed at greater length later in the course. Right now you need to know that some of the cells project to the caudate and putamen, two nuclei of the basal ganglia that together comprise what is called the STRIATUM. These NIGROSTRIATAL cells utilize the neurotransmitter DOPAMINE. |
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The basal ganglia
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Neural loops from cortex to basal ganglia to motor cortex.
Feedback from nigro striatal bundle coordinatin gmuscle activity |
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What are the two exits from the brain
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descending motor tracts (spinal nerves)
cranial nerves (dont descend through spine) |
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9 pairs of nerves provide connection from brian into muscles other 3 are purely____
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sensory: ex) foot area (small)
auditory vistibular nerve optic nerve |
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___ (#) pairs of descending motor pathways (or tracts) connect brain to ____(#) pairs of spinal motor nerves via spinal chord
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4, 31
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dorsolateral corticospinal tracts:
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to the side to the back.
starts in cortex, ends in spinal chord, CNS. (impulse originate from right side) cross to left side |
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dorsolaeral corticorubrospinal tract:
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passes through red nucleus
from cortex to red nucleus to spinal chord (not fimgers and toes) |
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Neural signals are carried from the retina to the lateral geniculate nuclei by axons of ______
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retinal ganglion
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The retinal ganglion cells from nasal hemiretinas travel from the other side of the brain via the
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the optic chiasm
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retina-geneculate-striate system is laid out
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retinotropically
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rhodopsin was implicated in scotopic vision by the fit between absorbtion spectrum of rhodopsin and
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scotopic sensitivity curve
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Ventromedial corticospinal tract
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big body movements
posture ventromedial |
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ventromedial cortico-brainstem spinal tact
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contralateral + ispelateral
trunk+ big body movements cortex-brainstem-spinal chord |
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5 divisions of spinal cord
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cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal
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What are muscles
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They are composed of muscle fibers that contract in response to acetylcholine and are released from motor neurons
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What does acytylcholine do
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stimulates muscle fiber, firing threshold for every muscle fiber
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neuromusclular junction:
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synapse between neuron and muscle fiber
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motor unit
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one motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it controls
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curare
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used in blow darts and to paralyze bloks acytylcholine.
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The high degree of _______ characteristic of the scotopic vision increases its sensitivity but decreases its _____
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convergence , acuity
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a single ommatidia fires at a rate proportional to light. Meaning...
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more intense ligth, more firing
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Golgi tendon organs
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monitor muscle tension
-> sensitive to amount of tension a muscle is under |
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Muscle spindles:
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Muscle spindles are sensory receptors within the belly of a muscle, which primarily detect changes in the length of this muscle. They convey length information to the central nervous system via sensory neurons.
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reciprocal intervation & cocontraction ensure what
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smoothe movement
(usually when contacting extensor, relaxing tensor, and visa versa ) |
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Spinal reflexes
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The simplest movements (stretch and withdrawal movements)
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Neuroplasticity
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The nervous systems capacity to respond to injury, experience and development factors
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2 types of neuroplasticity and describe
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STRUCTURAL: changes anatomical structure
FUNTIONAL: changes in function (ex Leonard walks with smile on his face so that he can show he "recognizes" people |
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Phantom limb phenomenon
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When a limb is detached from body but person still feels like it is there. this is not a delusion
-> somatosensory homunculus still firing as if limb was there |
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collateral sprouting
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imagine arm is lost, neighbouring parts, ex) face + shoulder will take over
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Anterograde vs rerograde degredation
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anterograde- towards axon terminals
retrograde-towards cell body |
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transneuronal degredation
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one neuron can disturb others
anterograde - harms neurons it is talking to, retrograde-harms neurons talking to it |
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receptive feild of a visual neuron is
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the area of th visual feild within which it is possible for visual stimulants to influence firing of the neuron
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outcomes of degeneration
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regeneration, death of neuron, cancer
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2 death processes of neuron in neurosystem
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necrosis: disintegration of the neuron debris can damage other cells, trigger inflammation
apotosis: programmed cell suicide; package its debris into vesicles for microglia to collect |
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How is neurogenisis blocked in the CNS
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oligodendrolia (possibly because regeneration could cause major issues if not done properly )
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Shwann cells:
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glial cells that help repair in PNS release neurotrophic factors
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tumours:
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cells that are functioning abnormally
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encapsulated tumours
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exert efforts by prssure, cause swelling, doesnt usually spread. example, lipoma
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infiltrating tumour:
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no defining line, can spread
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metastatic tumours:
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travel through circulatory system
ex meningeomas and neuromas |
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strokes:
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problem in brain tissue
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cerebral hemmorhage:
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bleeding in tissue
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cerebra ischemia
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disruption of blood flow to tissue
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thrombosis:
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clot
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narrowed artery
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arteriosclerosis
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infarct:
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dead tissue
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penumbra
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"shadow" spread of dead tissue
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anurism
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thin blood vessel walls cause it to balloon out, type of ischemia
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contusion:
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produces a blood clot, hematoma, usually in subarachnoid space (put a shunt in and drain it)
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concussion:
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disturbance in consciousness indicating brain damage usually through collision with the scull. (contre-coup) . not always loss of consciousness
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Chronic traumatic encephalography
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accumulated brain damage through repeated inpact to the head
degeneration of microtubules depression, memory deficits, trmors, loss of speach "punch drunk syndrome" |
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dementia pugilitica
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punch drunk syndrome
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partial seizure
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stay in one place, can be simple or complex
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generalized seizure.
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can be petit mal or grand mal
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petit mal
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does not manifest in behaviour, goes blank in cognitive function, seizures cause a "silence", person may or may not know notice it is happening, 3 times a second spikes
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grand mal
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causes all muscles to relax contact relax contact
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Amyloid plaque
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found in patients with Alzeihmers, can only be diagnosed after death
( neurons putting out waste but not collected) |
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3 main types of memory
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sensory memory: first step in information processing
short term memory: info being used long term memory |
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2 types of long term memory:
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declerative: can put into words (episodic and semantic)
procedural: skills, classical conditioning |
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learning:
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stregnthening or weakening of the neural connections
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memory:
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persistence of this change, form structural neuroplasticity
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synaptic proning
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getting rid of random connections
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LTP and LPP are both
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neural models of language and memory
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brain infections
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meningitis , syphilis
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viral infections
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rabies, herpes
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epilepsy:
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uspet neurons firing again and gain
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ALS
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breakdown of skeletal muscles
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Liberation therapy for CCSVI (cerebrospinal venous insufficiency)
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has to do with MS, believed that veins in brain did not drain properly and would try to liberate blood more efficiently
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LTP (long term potentiation) involves
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AMPA receptors and NMDA receptors
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what are AMPA receptors
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ligand activated ionotropic receptors. glutamate opens sodium channels linked to AMPA receptors. Interior of the ion becomes partially depolerized near the AMPA receptors
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NMDA
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also involved in LTP
another type of glutaminergic ionotropic receptor at rest NMDA ion channels are blocked by magnesium ions glutamate bind to receptors and channels open allowing influx of Ca+ ions |
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on center cells
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respond to lights shone in the central region of their receptive fields with "on" firing and to the lights in the periphery with "off"
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off center cells:
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respond with inhibition and off firing in response to light in the center of the receptive fields and on to lights in periphery
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autism associated with
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mirror neurons
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secondary motor cortex:
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mirror neruons, premotor cortex supplemtary motor area and singulate motor areas
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somatosensory in primary cortex is mapped out by what
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motor homunculous (map of body)
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where in brain is neurogenisis most evident
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hippocampus
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sensation
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information flow from receptor to cortex
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perception
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intergrating and interpreting info
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As one moves up visual hierarhcy neruons have ____receptive fields and the stimuli ti which they respond are more ______
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larger, specific
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largerst area of association cortex in the
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primary visual cortex
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lateral inhibition
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sharpness contrast by increasing the difference in firing rate of the cells on either side of a contour
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the __________ are part of neural loops that receive input from various cortical areas and transmit it back to various areas of the motor cortex
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basal ganglia
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What coverges on the posterior poreital association cortex?
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visual, auditory and somatosensory
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frontal eye feild plays major part in
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eye movement
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contralateral neglect is associted with large legions of the right ____lobe
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porietal
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movements not influenced by sensory feedback
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ballistic movements
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complmentary colours
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pairs of colours of light when combined produce white or grey
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opponent theory
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afterimages
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cytochrome oxidase
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blohs
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horshoe crab
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ommatidia
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damageds to area of primary visual cortex causes a ______ which causes a _____ which is also known as an area of blindness
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scotoma
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dorsal stream (primary visual cortex) f
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flows from primary visual cotex to dorsal prestraite cortex to prosterior porietal cortex.
SPECIALIZES in visual spatial |
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ventral stream (primary visual cortex)
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primary-> vental prestraite-> infotemporal
Specializes in pattern recognition |
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akinetopsia
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Akinetopsia, also known as cerebral akinetopsia or motion blindness, is an extremely rare neuropsychological disorder in which a patient cannot perceive motion in their visual field, despite being able to see stationary objects without issue. For patients with akinetopsia, the world becomes devoid of motion. Most of what is known about akinetopsia was learned through the case study of one patient, LM. There is currently no effective treatment or cure for akinetopsia.
can be triggered by OD on antidepressants |
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exteroceptive sensory information
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auditory+somatosensory+olfactory
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Hierarchy of sensory systems
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receptors-> thalamic nuclei, primary sensory-> seconday sensory -> association
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man who mistook his wife for a hat had problems with
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visua perception
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sensorimotor system is a
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parrallell functionally segregated heirarchical system (parallel means hierarchical system in whicg signals flow between levels over multiple points)
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complex and simple cells have
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rectangular receptive feilds
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simple cells are _____ while complex cells are ____
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monocular, binocular
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mirror neurons
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In premotor cortex and posterior porietal cortex
active when specific movements are made by others (making sense of other peoples behaviour) |
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Nitric oxide acts as a ______ messenger causeing changes in the ______ neuron
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retrograde presynaptic
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ampikines
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prolong opening of AMPA receptor Na+ channels > increase activity of NMDA receptors
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antidepressant drugs help or hinder neurogenisis
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help
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multiple trace theory
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each retrieval of an engram creates another engram
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Zeus Ammons
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horns of hyppocampus
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Hypocampus is how many neurons deep
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3
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spatial memories
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place cells > indicate where we think we are (only fire in each location)
ex) rats impaired in morris water maze |
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perirhinal cortex
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object recognition
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enterorhinal cortex
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place cells closely related to hyppocampus
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consolodation
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hardening of an engram
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more recent memories are mor evulnerable to disruption (T?F)
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T
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ECS vs ECT
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ECS-done on rats, not for therapy
ECT-done on humans for therapy but wipes out memories that happen 3 hours before treatment |
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Alzheimers
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basal forebrain damage and diffuse cerebral damage
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Korsekoffs syndrome
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due to thiamine defficiency
mediodorsal nuclei implicated, amnesia + confabulation people who drink too much have a bad diet -----> person cannot retrieve autobiographical information so they make stuff up. inner artist makes it up |
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MEdial temporal lobectomy
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H.M died at 82 and could not form new explicit memories
could form implicit memories anterograde amnesia |
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rate of neurogenis is ____what ____ is how long they live
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constant varies
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component theory
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3 colours
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opponent process theory
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two different classes of cells in the visual system. one for encoding colour, the other one for brightness
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red ________ and green is
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hyperpolerized, hypopolerized
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