Sociology Of Gender

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Doing Difference

bring in the idea of race and class to gender and noticing feminism has a white m.c bias
-white privledge

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Fenstermaker and west
: stemming from wests earlier ideas in doing gender an ethmomthological conception of gender west and f expand their analysis to include class and race as equivelant mechanisms to gender in the production of social ineqiuality and that their relationship isn’t as concise as a simple hierarchy

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Inequality regimes

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Joan Acker
is that the reproduction of class, gender, and racial inequalitiesas well as the obstacles to creating inequality in work organizations can both be explained using the idea of inequality regimes

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A Doubious Equality

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Kathy Davis
davis claims that cosmetic surgery cannot be understood as a matter of individual choice or as an artefact of consumer culture. Instead it has to be situated in the context of how gender/power is exercised in late modern western culture. She says that cosmetic surgery belongs to a broad regime of technologies practices and discourses which define the female body as deficient and in need of constant transformation

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“Gendered Bodies: Between Conformity and Autonomy”

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*Sharyn Roach Anleu

this article examines the gendered assumptions about the nature and place of the female body in contemporary western society. Anelu suggests that in all societies bodies are subject to considerable normative evaluation and regulation, which most ly regulate bodies and their functions and that these norms are deeply gendered and construct inequalities between men and women
She suggests that these socially constructed differences and ideas about bodies of men and women are usually constitutes as bases for inequality placing women, and femininity in and inferior postion to men and masculinity

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I just wanna be me again Beauty Pageants

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Sarah Banet-Weiser and Laura Portwood-Stacer
-reality tv shows and their surgical transformations are the new thing where it is normalized
banet-weiser and portwood-stace contend that television performance of gender have switched focus from the deeply scripted out of date miss America pageants to reality makeover shows. These shows normalize cosmetic surgery as an avenue to transform into the ideal woman. The authors point out that these gender performances are derived from cultural and political conditions that created them

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“Race, Beauty and the Tangled Knot of Guilty Pleasure.” Feminist
Theory

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Maxine Leads Craig
how white women use beauty as agency but other women (black) have to adopt different stratigies to resist (afro)

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“Yearning for Lightness: Transnational Circuits in the Marketing
and Consumption of Skin Lighteners.”

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Glenn
glenn claims that a through analysis of the global circuits of skin lightening provides a critical understanding of the workings of the western-dominated global system as it perpetrates a white is right ideology in conjunctions with promoting the desire for and consumption of western culture and products

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“Class-Based Masculinities: The Interdependence of Gender, Class
and Interpersonal Powe

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Karen Pyke

dominance over both women and lower class/race/younger men

; in this article pyke aims to point out how structures of inequality are expressed in ideological hegemonies which construct gender in ways that reemphasize and normalize the domination of men over women and that of privileged men over lower-class men. She aims to portray how dominant cultural views are what shape and construct gender dominance (usually male) and reinforce female subordination in societies
-pyke delves into the notion that male dominance particularly of higher class males over women as well as other lower class men, men of colour,younger men and homosexual men is reinforced through deeply held and typically nonconscious beliefs about mena and womens essential natures. She stresses that beliefs are moulded by existing macrostructural power relations and thus emphasize culturally appropriate ways of producing gender

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if its not on its on: womens condom use

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Nicola Gavey, Kathryn McPhillips and Marion Doherty
-womens lack of control of condom use and sex in general: dominance of men

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“Hegemonic Masculinity: Rethinking the Concept

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R.W. Connell and James W. Messerschmidt

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“Becoming ‘Real Men’: Adolescent Masculinity Challenges and
Adolescent Masculinity Challenges and Sexual Violence

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James W. Messerschmidt

two boy sexual assault

james Messerschmitt uses two life-stories in order to explore the relationship between the social construction of masculinity and adolescent sexual violence. He argues that past research has ignored the role of sexuality and its relationship to masculinity and sexual violence. Sam and johns life stories show how dominant and subordinate masculinities are constructed in and through bodily and sexual images, interactions and processes. The author suggests that although both boys initially launched a hegemonic project bodily and sexual practices institutionalized in school presented masculinity challenges to both boys and played a major role in structuring their subsequent formation of subordinate masculinities. The boys used sexual violence as a resource for overcoming these masculinity challenges.

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Sexual Assault on Campus

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Elizabeth A. Armstrong, Laura Hamilton, Brian Sweeney

-Armstrong, Hamilton, and Sweeney aim to answer the question as to why sexual assaults continue on college and university campuses despite efforts to prevent it. They contend that processes at individual, organizational and interactional levels all reproduce gender inequality, which contributes to high rates of sexual assault

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“Sexual Harassment and Masculinity: The Power and Meaning of
‘Girl Watching.

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Beth Quinn
girl watchin in the workplace
Beth Quinn’s study explored the accounts to which, men and women viewed the formation of sexual harassment in the working environment. The study focused on the subjectivity of male perpetrators through “girl watching,” a debatable form of sexual harassment within the workplace. Girl watching is similar to objectification in that it is defined as “the act of men sexually evaluating women, often in the company of other men” (Quinn, 387). This study interviewed 48 men in the workplace, and they described girl watching as a harmless game played among a group of men. The accounts men gave for sexual harassment indicated that they saw “harmless flirtation or sexual interest rather than harassment because they miss-perceived woman’s intent and responses”

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Grinding on the Dance Floor: Gendered Scripts and Sexualized
Dancing at College Parties

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Shelly Ronen

he author of the article, Shelly Ronen, argues that grinding between males and females at dances is a kind of sexual interaction, which reinforces gender difference and gender inequality. She explains that grinding between males and females evolves as a gendered social process, that ultimately leads to women and men demonstrating certain gender scripts established in society, that reinforce gender inequality.

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Equity or Essentialism?: U.S. Courts and the Ligitimation of Girls’
Teams in High School Sports.

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Adam Love and Kimberly Kelly
Love and Kelley analyze the relationship that sport has on legitimating and maintaining gender inequality and how the law plays an important role in reinforcing essentialist assumptions that women are “natural[y] inferior in sport” (227). Love and Kelly analyze and review fourteen American court cases in which boys sought to play on girls’ high school sports teams where there was no boys’ team available. The decisions from these cases reinforce and help perpetuate sex segregation in sport. Essentially, Love and Kelly “explore the role played by the courts in normalizing sex-segregated sport and critique the ways in which sex segregation and women-only sport particularly function to promote gender inequity

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“Either/Or: Sports, Sex and the Case of Caster Semenya

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Ariel Levy

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Utopian Visions

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Judith Lorber, Mary Evans and Kathy Davis
focuses on social change and how to get there in regards to gender equality. Her main argument was that in order to actually achieve significant social change and equality the underlying structural and legal binary of gender needed to be dismantled and gender be abolished. She does not discount the issues that feminists have previously advocated for but she believes that certain agendas need to be further pushed in order to address gender boundaries and categories.de-gendering society

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doing difference

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fenstermaker and west critique their essay on doing gender which ignores the impacts of class, race and sexuality

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Unpacking the gender system

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Ridgeway and Correll
In this article ridgeway and correll believe that gender is not simply a role that is taught to children but instead is an institutionalized system of social practices for constituting people as 2 significantly different categories. It is these categories men and women that shape social relations and perpetuate inequalities on the basis of difference. The shared hegemonic gender beliefs of our culture impact our social relational interactions with others, which in turn shape and maintain the gender system. The beliefs we hold about what it means to be a man or woman bias our everyday behaviours and performances while shaping how we evaluate others

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doing gender

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west and zimmerman

Doing gender involves a complex of socially guided perceptual, interactional and micro-political activities that cast particular pursuits as expressions of masculine and feminine “natures”.

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gender as a social construction

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barbara risman
suggested the theory of gender as a social structure. This theory looks at the individual, interactional and organizational levels and how they pertain to the development of gendered selves, cultural expectations, and regulations regarding resource distribution


rismond investigates how gender is a social construct that effectively acts as a determinant if social inequality btwn both masculine and feminine gender types. She uses workplace experiences, cultural expectations and how there is gender inequality
-a qualitative approach via in depth interview and home observations of heterosexual married couples and their nuclear family unit. Twenty couples were examined in the roles and distribution of labour both domestic and formal paid employment. The sample contained non traditional assertive women as they exhibit stron and directive behaviour compared to the reletivley lazy behaviour of men. Income and work remained inequaiable for women tho

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daniels chapter 4-7

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main thesis, outlined in chapter four, is that a woman must consciously attain femininity through performance and appearance. This challenge is especially unique for female athletes. Chapters five through seven outline the specific ways in which this femininity is achieved.

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The Notes: social contruction of gender defined

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The differences between females and males are not based in some biologically determined truth.

Social Construction refers simply to the social forces that shape differences.

It refers to the social practice of perceiving and defining aspects of people and situations inconsistently, to force our observations to fit our social beliefs.

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The role of biology in the s.c of gender

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-biology sends particular cues about the gender identities we should have
-we already have a dichotomous view of the wor;ld so we are looking for those dichotomous views that support those believes
-we focus on deifferences: if research focuses on differences then it will be found but the question is how significant are the differences
-however the assumptions of what those differences are factor in

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what role does socialization play in the s.c of gender

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Socialization is the process of learning the rules of the social group or culture to which we belong or hope to belong, and learning to define ourselves and others within that setting.

Most norms specify a range of acceptable behaviors, rather than one narrowly defined possibility.

Through socialization, we often internalize, or accept as correct, the rules and definitions of the socializing group.

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Criticisms of the sex gender role theories

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The use of the idea of role has the effect of actually minimizing the importance of gender.
Sex/gender role theory posits singular normative definitions of masculinity and femininity.
Sex/gender theory posits two separate spheres—rather than dealing with the relationship between men and women.
Sex/gender role theory ignores the fact that because gender is plural and relational, it is also situational.
Sex/gender role theory depoliticizes gender, making gender a set of individual attributes and not an aspect of social structure.
Sex/gender role theory is inadequate in comprehending the dynamics of change.

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INTERACTIONAL VIEW OF BIOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS

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Loopback interchange of bodily, behavioral, environmental, interactive and social structural factors
Pathways between biological and social are reciprocal
Nature versus nurture ignores complexities underlying behaviors when in reality the two work in an interactive fashion
There is no simple or single answer to the question of how human beings differ biologically or how women and men differ behaviorally

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Rismans social construction framework

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Individual analysis: socialization identities
Interactional level of analysis: cultural expectations; taken-for-granted situational meaning
Institutional level: distribution of material advantage, formal organizational schemas, ideaological discourse

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gierson and Piess

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Gender is defined by socially constructed relationships between women and men, among women, and among men is social groups.
Gender is not a rigid or reified analytic category imposed human experience, but a fluid one whose meaning emerges in specific social contexts as it is created and recreated through human actions.
Analysis of gender relations necessarily goes beyond comparisons of the status of the status and power of the sexes involving examination of the dynamic, reciprocal, and interdependent interactions between and among women and men
RECONCEPTUALIZING GENDER RELATIONS:

Boundaries: (part of the social structure that limit or empower one to act)the things that keep women apart from men: jobs/division of labour/traditional gender roles


Negotiation (Domination)) how do we move the boundaries: men negotiate that women can come into the workforce but that they are not going to take over a mans position: so when women went into the paid labour force they pushed the boundary but didn’t cross it bc

Front 30

Geirson and Piess CONSCIOUSNESS

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gender awareness>female or male conciousness>feminist/anti-feminist/masculinist
Consciousness: that we bring to all of these interactions: they characterize it as levels of consciousness:
1. gender awareness is the first level: is basic to the development of the next two forms of consciousness: involves a non critical system of a description of gender relations: this is what it means to be a woman and a man: non critical: kind of accepts the way it is: ie we dress appropriately for our gender

2. Female or male consciousness: the system doesn’t ever really change until we challenge the system. If you believe that the natural order of things is correct IE get married woman has babies and takes care of them then you wouldn’t change anything. We need to change consciousness

3. feminist or anti-feminist/masculinist option: social change

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RIDGEWAY AND CORRELL

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Gender is an institutionalized system of social practices for constituting people as two significantly different categories, men and women, and organizing social relations of inequality on the basis of that difference.

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hegemony

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Hegemony refers to a historical process in which the dominant group exercises ‘moral and intellectual leadership’ throughout society by winning the ‘consent’ from people.

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inequality regimes: joan acker

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All organizations have inequality regimes, defined as loosely interrelated practices, processes, actions, and meanings that result in and maintain class, gender, and racial inequalities within particular organizations.

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How do West and Fenstermaker apply their understanding of “doing gender” to “doing difference”?

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In this article, we extend our analysis to consider explicitly the relationships among gender, race, and class, and to reconceptualize "difference" as an ongoing interactional accomplishment
Feminist thought is primarily based on middle class women-middle class bias-because oppressed groups by race/class don’t have the resources to publish
Doing gender: We argued that doing gender involves a complex of perceptual, interactional, and micropolitical activities (demenour, props), that
cast particular pursuits as expressions of manly and womanly "natures: and making sure the audience believes your gender: an ongoing interactrional accomplishment: in those social interactions we recreate those ideas of gender

We assert that, while gender, race, and class-what people come to experience as organizing categories of social difference-
exhibit vastly different descriptive characteristics and outcomes, they are, nonetheless, comparable as mechanisms for producing social inequality.
Cherre Moraga (1981) argues t

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INEQUALITY IN ORGANIZATIONS

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Acker defines inequality in organizations as systematic disparities between participants in power and control over goals, resources, and outcomes; workplace decisions such as how to organize work; opportunities for promotion and interesting work; security in employment and benefits; pay and other monetary rewards; respect; and pleasures in work and work relations.

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THE COMPONENTS OF INEQUALITY REGIMES

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The Bases of Inequality

Class
Gender
Race (Ethnicity)
Sexuality


Shape and Degree of Inequality

Steepness of hierarchy
Pattern of segregation by race and gender
Wage differences
Power

Organizing Processes that Produce Inequality

Organizing the general requirements of work.
Organizing hierarchies.
Recruitment and hiring.
Wage setting and supervisory practices.
Informal interactions while “doing the work.”
The Visibility of Inequalities

The Legitimacy of Inequalities


Control and Compliance

Direct Controls
Unobtrusive or Indirect Controls
Internalized Controls

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CAN INEQUALITY REGIMES CHANGE?

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Successful change projects seem to have had a number of common characteristics:

Change efforts that target a limited set of inequality-producing mechanisms seem to be the most successful.
Successful efforts appear to have combined social movement and legislative support outside the organization with active support from insiders.
Successful efforts often involve coercion or threat of loss.

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hegemonic masculinities
Connell and Messerschmidt’s Formulation

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Hegemonic masculinity was understood as the pattern of practice that allowed men’s dominance over women to continue.
Hegemonic masculinity was distinguished from other masculinities, especially subordinated masculinities.
Hegemony did not mean violence, although it could be supported by force; it meant ascendency achieved through culture, institutions, and persuasion.
There could be a struggle for hegemony, and older forms of masculinity might be displaced by new ones.

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hegemonic masculinities
Connell and Messerschmidt’s Applications

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Documenting the consequences and costs of hegemony

Uncovering mechanisms of hegemony

Showing greater diversity in masculinities

Tracing changes in hegemonic masculinities

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hegemonic masculinities
Connell and Messerschmidt’s +Critiques of the Concept

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The Underlying Concept of Masculinity

Ambiguity and Overlap

The Problem of Reification

The Masculine Subject

The Pattern of Gender Relations

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How should the concept of hegemonic masculinity be reformulated?

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Gender Hierarchy

The Geography of Masculinities

Social Embodiment

The Dynamic of Masculinities

Front 42

Wresting with manhood movie

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-the depiction of women as sex objects
-males as having power: being strong and dominating is what makes you a man
-why would parents let their kids to watch this: I think the parents are naïve and think its just entertainment: not critically assessing it or the impact it might have on their children
-what do things like wrestling and UFC tell us about our societys values: because we don’t believe in real life these things can’t happen
-UFC is more accepted as a sport not as much violence against women so not as degrading but still objectifies the women in their little outfits
-by presenting it as a sport it doesn’t seem as accessible as wrestling but wrestling is something anyone can do or copy
-I think both types are destructive to children to watch violence is violence
-the real question is why do these types of entertainment appeal to us
-normalizing how men act on these types of media as being real men
-homophobia in wrestling: watching the girls do it is accepted: women are shown in a sexual wa

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Movie about female sports

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movie: arguing that sports are shaped by male hetronormativity
-in 1989 there was a law passed giving women the same (Title 9) rights in sports ….given them a sense of entitlement into being able to play sport
-pre- title 9 it was debated whether or not women should participate in sports

-women rep 40% of participants but only represent 5% of media attention which makes it seem like they don’t participate as much as men
-coverage of women has gone up to 8% but they are still very unrep in media
-lead stories are always about mens sports
-when women are shown in media its mostly in ways that’s demeaning: ie nude bungy jumper on st patricks day
-television cover more feminised aspect of womens sports ie figure skating and tennis: fit more with what women are supposed to look like or act
-also call them by their first name but men are called by last names or both names
-same as in an office sec called by first name while men called by mister
-news covers things like jenny thompsan taking her shirt off o

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Judith lorber Utopian visions

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Degender society:Use gender neutral forms spouse, children, siblings, not daughters wives etc

-the assignment of tasks should be de-gendered
-argues to make the world de-gendered
-I think a lot of people are already trying to do this by using terms like partner more commonly

-talks about beurucratic practice and changing that
why is it that she wants to de-gender society? Is there actually a logic: to dimental inequalities

-as long as we have 2 separate categories dichotomy between male/female it willl always be separate and unequal

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Women and Sport Batrky

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Three activities make a body feminine:A body of particular size and configuration

Specific gestures, postures, and movements appropriate to a feminine woman

Outward decoration of the body




bodies are expected to be different for men and women: women shouldn’t have upper body strength
-two dominant kinds of bodies: feminine sports and their bodies and then masculine-orientated sports: womens bodies are more masculing: more upper body strength; these women have problems in terms of maintaining their femininity and being a goodf athetlete: ie female shoptputers need to be strong (require a lot of physical strength) but also need to be feminine: hard to accomplish
-gymnists, figure skaters and tennis players are more feminine sports: even gymnists need a lot of physical strength but here they are characterized as pixies, little girls-none of their coverage is asscoiated with strength
-commentary on these feminine associated sports is more focused on look at how fast strong and amazing he is (figure skate

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COMPULSORY HETEROSEXUALITY

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First coined by Adrienne Rich (1980), the term compulsory heterosexuality refers to the idea that heterosexuality is constructed, institutionalized, and reinforced as not only a universal, but the only “normal” and “acceptable” form of sexuality.
One idea behind compulsory heterosexuality is that heterosexuality is not a freely made choice for most people and for women in particular: Heterosexuality is not simply one option among many. Rather, it is a pervasive, powerful, and coercive social and political institution that depends on other powerful social institutions to maintain its dominance.
From this perspective, heterosexuality is imposed upon people as natural and inevitable by peers, parents, schools, media, and other social institutions such as law and religion.