Social Psychology

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Self-Concept

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(sense of who we are) contains
1 - our personal identity (our sense our personal attributes)
2 - our social identity

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Controlled Processing

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explicit thinking that is deliberate, reflective and conscious

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Automatic Processing

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implicit thinking that is effortless, habitual and without awareness - roughly corresponds to intuition

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Schema

Back 4

(mental templates) intuitively guide our perceptions and interpretations of our experience

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Affective-forecasts

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people's predictions of their future emotions

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Impact Bias

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overestimating the enduring impact of emotion-causing events

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Immune Neglect

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being ignorant of our psychosocial immune system (of their strategies for rationalizing, discounting, forgiving and limiting emotional trauma)

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Dual Attitude System (Wilson)

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differing implicit (automatic) and explicit (conscious) attitudes toward the same object

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Looking-Glass Self

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using others as a mirror for perceiving ourselves

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Social Comparisons

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evaluating one's ability and opinions by comparing oneself to others

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Self-Esteem

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a person's overall self-evaluation or sense of self-worth - the sum of all our self-schemas and possible selves

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Fragile Self-Esteem

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conscious views about oneself that are positive + low implicit self-esteem (dependent on external sources)

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Secure Self-Esteem

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one rooted more in feeling good about who one is than on grades, looks, money or others' approval - they are more conductive to long-term well being

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Social Identity

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the "we" aspect of our concept. The part of our answer to "who am I". A social definition that implies who you are and what you are not.

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Self-Schemas

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the elements of self-concept, the specific beliefs by which we define ourselves - the beliefs about self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information

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Self-Reference Effect

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the tendency to process efficiently and remember well information related to oneself - when info is relevant to our self-concepts, we process it quickly and remember it well (how the self influences memory)

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Possible Selves

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images of what we dream of or dread of becoming in the future

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Bottom-Up View of Self-Esteem

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people who value themselves in a general way are more likely to then value their looks, abilities, etc. (high self-esteem)

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Top-Down View of Self-Esteem

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people evaluate themselves first with what they already have

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Learned helplessness

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the hopelessness and resignation learned when a human or animal perceives no control over repeated bad events

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Self-Serving Bias

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the tendency to perceive oneself favourably - is an interpretation from our beliefs about ourselves and a motivated bias

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Self-Serving Attributions

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a form of self-serving bias; tendency to attribute positive outcomes to oneself and negative outcomes to other factors – one of most powerful human biases

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False Consensus Effect

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the tendency to overestimate the commonality of one’s opinions and one’s undesirable or unsuccessful behaviours

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False Uniqueness Effect

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the tendency to underestimate the commonality of one’s abilities and one’s desirable or successful behaviours

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Temporal Comparisons

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a comparison between how the self is viewed now and the self was viewed in the past, or how the self I expected to be viewed in the future – comparisons of our past and future selves portray the current self in a positive light

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Terror Management Theory

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all human behaviour is motivated by the fear of mortality

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Self-Handicapping

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protecting one’s self-image with behaviours that create a handy excuse for later failure

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Self-Presentation

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refers to our wanting to present a desired image both to an external audience (other people) and to an internal audience (ourselves) - the act of expressing oneself in ways designed to create a favourable impression

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Self-Monitoring

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being attuned to the way one presents oneself in social situations and adjusting one’s performance to create the desired impression

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Priming

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activating particular associations in memory

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Belief Perseverance

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persistence of one’s initial conceptions, as when the basis for one’s belief is discredited but an explanation of why the belief might be true survives

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Misinformation Effect

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incorporating misinformation into one’s memory of the event, after witnessing an event and receiving misleading information about it

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Overconfidence Phenomenon

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the tendency to be more efficient than correct; to overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs

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Confirmation Bias

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a tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions

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Heuristics

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a thinking strategy that enables quick and efficient judgments

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Representativeness Heuristic

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the tendency to presume, sometimes despite contrary odds, that someone or something belongs to a particular group if representing a typical member

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Availability Heuristic

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a cognitive rule that judges the likelihood of things in terms of their availability in memory. If instances of something come readily to mind, we presume it to be commonplace

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Counterfactual Thinking

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mentally simulating what might have been – imagining alternative scenarios and outcomes that might have happened but didn’t

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Illusory Correlation

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perception of a relationship where none exists, or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists

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Illusion of Control

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the idea that chance events are subject to our influence; perception of uncontrollable events as subject to one’s control or as more controllable than they are - e.g. gambling

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Regression Toward the Average

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the statistical tendency for extreme scores or extreme behaviour to return toward one’s average- exceptional performance tends to regress toward normality

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Misattribution

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mistakenly attributing a behaviour to the wrong cause

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Dispositional Attribution

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attributing behaviour to the person’s disposition and traits

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Situational Attribution

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attributing behaviour to the environment
 A teacher may wonder whether a child’s underachievement is due to lack of motivation and ability (dispositional attribution) or to physical and social circumstances (situational attribution)

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Attribution Theory

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(Fritz) the theory of how people explain others' behaviour - e.g. by attributing it either to internal dispositions (enduring traits, motives and attitudes) or to external situations

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Fundamental Attribution Error

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(aka correspondence bias) the tendency for observers to underestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences on other’s behaviour

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Self-Awareness

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a self-conscious state in which attention focuses on oneself. It makes people more sensitive to their own attitudes and dispositions

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Self-fulfilling prophecies

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a belief that leads to its own fulfillment

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Behavioural confirmation

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a type of self-fulfilling prophecy whereby people’s social expectations lead them to act in ways that cause others to confirm their expectations – once erroneous beliefs about the social world formed, it can induce others to confirm those beliefs

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Conformity

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a change in behaviour or belief to accord with others – acting differently from the way you would act alone

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Compliance

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outward conformity – conforming to an expectation or request without really believing in what we are doing; publicly acting in accord with social pressure while privately disagreeing

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Acceptance

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sincere, inward conformity – genuinely believing in what the group has persuaded us to do; acting and believing in accord with social pressure

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Obedience

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explicit command – to reap a reward or avoid a punishment; acting in accord with a direct order

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Autokinetic phenomenon

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self (auto) movement (kinetic); the apparent movement of a stationary point of light in the dark – an illusion

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Confederate

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Accomplice of the experimenter

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Cohesiveness

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a “we feeling” – the extent to which members of a group are bound together, such as by attraction for one another

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Normative influence

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conformity based on a person’s desire to fulfill others’ expectations, often to gain acceptance – going along with the crowd

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Informational influence

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conformity that results from accepting evidence about reality provided by other people – privately accepting others’ influence

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Reactance

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a motive to protect or restore one’s sense of freedom. Reactance arises when someone threatens our freedom of action

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Group

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2 or more people who, for longer than a few moments, interact with and influence one another and perceive one another as "us"

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Coactors

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a group of people working simultaneously and individually on a noncompetitive task

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Social Facilitation

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original meaning - the tendency of people to perform tasks better when others are present
current meaning - the strengthening of dominant (prevalent, likely) responses owing to the presence of others

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Evaluation Apprehension

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concern for how others are evaluating us

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Social Loafing

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the tendency for people to exert less effort when they pool their efforts towards a common goal than when they are individually accountable

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Free Riders

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people who benefit from the group but give little in return

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Deindividuation

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loss of self-awareness and evaluation apprehension; occurs in group situations that foster anonymity and draw attention away from the individual

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Group Polarization

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group-produced enhancement of member's pre-existing tendencies; a strengthening of the members' average tendency, not a split within the group

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Social Comparison

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evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself to others

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Pluralistic Ignorance

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a false impression of how other people are thinking, feeling, or responding

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Groupthink

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the mode of thinking that persons engage in when concurrence-seeking becomes so dominant in a cohesive in-group that it tends to override realistic appraisal alternative courses of action

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Leadership

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the process by which certain group membres motivate and guide the group

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Natural Selection

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the evolutionary process by which nature selects traits that best enable organisms to survive and reproduce in particular environmental niches

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Evolutionary Psychology

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they study of the evolution of behaviour using principles of natural selection

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Culture

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the enduring behaviours, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

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Norms

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rules of accepted and expected behaviour. Norms describe "proper" behaviour

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Individualism

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the concept of giving priority to one's own foals over groups goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications

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Collectivism

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giving priority to the goals of one's groups (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly

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Holistic Reasoning

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reasoning that emphasizes considering all possible influences and balancing competing forces

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Analytical Reasoning

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reasoning that emphasizes the proper use of rules and that contradictory statements cannot be true

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Superodinate Goal

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a shared goal that necessitates cooperative effort a goal that overrides people's differences from one another

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Interaction

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the effect of one factor (such as biology) depends on another factor (such as environment)

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Altruism

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a motive to increase another's welfare without conscious regard for one's self-interests

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Social-Exchange Theory

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the theory that human interactions are transactions that aim to maximize one;s rewards and minimize one's costs

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Egoism

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a motive (supposedly underlying all behaviour) to increase one's own welfare. The opposite of altruism, which aims to increase another's welfare

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Reciprocity

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an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

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Social-Responsible Norm

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an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them

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Kin Selection

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the idea that evolution has selected altruism toward one`s close relatives to enhance the survival of mutuality shared genes

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Empathy

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the vicarious experience of another's feeling; putting oneself in another's shoes

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Bystander Effect

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the finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders

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Door-in-the-Face Technique

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a strategy for gaining a concession. After someone first turns down a large request (the door-in-the-face), the same requester counteroffers with a more reasonable request

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Moral Exclusion

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the perception of certain individuals or groups as outside the boundary within which one applies moral values and rules of fairness. Moral inclusion is regarding others as within one's circle of moral concern

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Overjustification Effect

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the result of bribing people to do what they already like doing; they may then see their action as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing

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Aggression

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physical or verbal behaviour intended to hurt someone

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Hostile Aggression

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aggression driven by anger and performed as an end in itself

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Instrumental Aggression

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aggression that is a means to some other end

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Instinctive Behaviour

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an innate, unlearned behaviour pattern exhibited by all members of a species

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Frustration-Aggression Theory

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the theory that frustration triggers a readiness to aggress

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Frustration

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the blocking of a goal-directed behaviour

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Displacement

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the redirection of aggression to a target other than the source of the frustration. Generally, the new target is a safer or more socially acceptable target

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Relative Deprivation

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the perception that one is less well off than others to whom one compares oneself

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Social Learning Theory

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the theory that we learn social behaviour by observing and imitating and by being rewarded and punished

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Prosocial Behaviour

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positive, constructive, helpful social behaviour; the opposite of antisocial behaviour

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Social Script

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culturally provided mental instructions for how to act in various situations

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Need to Belong

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a motivation to bond with others in relationships that provide ongoing, positive interactions

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Proximity

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geographically nearness. Proximity(more precisely "functional distance") powerfully predicts liking

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Mere-exposure Effect

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the tendency for novel stimuli to be liked more or rated more positively after the rater has been repeatedly exposed to them

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Matching Phenomenon

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the tendency for men and women to choose as partners those who are a "good match" in attractiveness and other traits

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Physical-Attractiveness Stereotype

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the presumption that physically attractive people possess other socially desirable traits as well" what is beautiful is good

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Complementarity

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the popular supposed tendency, in a relationship between 2 people , for each to complete what is missing in the other

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Ingratiation

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the use of strategies such as flattery, by which people seek to gain another's favour

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Reward Theory of Attraction

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the theory that we like those whose behaviour is rewarding to us or whom we associate with rewarding events

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Two-Factor Theory

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arousal x its label = emotion

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Passionate Love

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a state if intense longing for union with another. Passionate lovers are absorbed in one another, feel ecstatic at attaining their partner's love, and are disconsolate on losing it

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Companionate Love

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the affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply intertwined

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Secure Attachment

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attachments rooted in trust and marked by intimacy

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Preoccupied attachment

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attachment marked by a sense of one's own unworthiness and anxiety, ambivalence and possessiveness

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Dismissive Attachment

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an avoidant relationship style marked by distrust of others

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Fearful Attachment

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an avoidant relationship style marked by a fear of rejection

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Equity

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a condition in which the outcomes people receive from a relationship are proportional to what they contribute to it. Equitable outcomes needn't always be equal outcomes

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Self-Disclosure

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revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others

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Disclosure Reciprocity

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the tendency for one person's intimacy of self-disclosure to match that of conversational partner

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Conflict

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a perceived incompatibility of actions or goals

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Social Trap

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a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing its self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behaviour

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Non-Zero-Sum Games

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games in which outcomes need not sum to zero. With cooperation, both can win; with competition, both can lose (aka mixed-motive situations)

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Equity

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a condition in which the outcomes people receive from a relationship are proportional to what they contribute to it. Equitable outcomes needn't always be equal outcomes

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Bargaining

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seeking agreement through direct negotiation between parties to a conflict

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Mediation

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attempt by a neutral 3rd party to resolve a conflict by facilitating communication and offering suggestions

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Arbitration

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resolution of a conflict by a neutral third party who studies both sides and imposes a settlement

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Integrative Agreements

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win-win agreements that reconcile both parties’ interests to their mutual benefit

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GRIT

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graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension reduction - strategy designed to de-escalate international tensions

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spontaneous Trait Inference

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when we say something good or bad about another, people will tend to associate that trait with us

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Rosy Retrospection

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recalling mildly pleasant events more favourably than they experienced them, minimizing recollection of the unpleasantness or boringness of the event