Social Psych- Midterm 1

Front 1

Theory

Back 1

- explains with principles that organize observations and predict behaviour or events

- simplifies

Front 2

Hypotheses

Back 2

testable predictions

Front 3

Operational Definition

Back 3

statement of procedures used to define research variables

Front 4

Descriptive Methods

Back 4

- observe & record behaviour

- do not manipulate

- CONS: no control of variables and some cases may be misleading

Front 5

Types of Descriptive Methods

Back 5

- case studies

- surveys

- naturalistic observation

Front 6

Case Study

Back 6

in-depth analysis of specific individuals to reveal things true of all of us

Front 7

Survey

Back 7

technique used to ascertain self-reported attitudes & behaviours of a group

Front 8

Correlation

Back 8

- used to associate different factors

- measure extent that two factors very together and predict each other

Front 9

Experimental Methods

Back 9

- manipulate factors to discover effects

- control variables w/ random assignment

Front 10

Double Blind Procedure

Back 10

Research participants and researchers are blind to whether participants received treatment/placebo

Front 11

Placebo Effect

Back 11

Experimental results caused by expectations alone

Front 12

Confounding Variables

Back 12

Factor other than independent variable that might produce effect in an experiment

Front 13

Social Perception

Back 13

intake and registering social information

Front 14

Social Cognition

Back 14

use and manipulation of social information

Front 15

Emotional Contagion

Back 15

mechanism for feelings being transferred in a seemingly automatic way

Front 16

6 Basic Emotions

Back 16

i) Anger

ii) Fear

iii) Sadness

iv) Disgust

v) Happiness

vi) Surprise

Front 17

Face-in-the-crowd effect

Back 17

- Tendency to notice negative facial expressions even in a crowd

- Threatening faces are noticed quickest

Front 18

Emotional Arousal

Back 18

signaled when one part of the body does something to another part

Front 19

Emblems

Back 19

Body movements carrying specific meanings in a given culture

Front 20

Microexpressions

Back 20

fleeting facial expressions lasting only a few tenths of a second

Front 21

Interchannel Discrepancies

Back 21

inconsistencies between nonverbal cues from different basic channels

Front 22

Nonverbal cues to deception

Back 22

- microexpressions

- interchannel discrepancies

- pitch of voice rises, hesitantly speaking, errors

- blink more, pupils dilate, less eye contact

- exaggerated facial expressions

Front 23

Attribution

Back 23

complex process through which we attempt to understand the reasons behind others' behaviour

Front 24

Who developed the theory of correspondent interference?

Back 24

Jones & Davis

Front 25

Theory of Correspondent Interference

Back 25

How can we be sure someone's behaviour reflects their character?

- Focus on certain types of behaviour:

1. Freely chosen

2. Non-common effects

3. Low in social desirability

Front 26

Kelley's Theory of Causal Attributions

Back 26

- How we answer "why?"

- Central Attribution Task

- Focus on 3 dimensions:

1) Consensus

2) Consistency

3) Distinctiveness

Front 27

Consensus

Back 27

extent to which others react to the stiulus/event in the same manner as the person we're considering

Front 28

Consistency

Back 28

extent to which person in question reacts to stimulus/event in same way on other occasions

Front 29

Distinctiveness

Back 29

extent to which person reacts in the same manner to other stimuli/events

Front 30

Discounting

Back 30

tendency to attach less importance to one potential cause of some behaviour when other potential causes are also present

Front 31

Augmenting

Back 31

tendency to assign added weight/importance to a factor that might facilitate a given behaviour when both this factor and another that might inhibit such behaviour are both present, yet the behaviour still occurs

Front 32

Weiner's Model of Causal Attribution

Back 32

When looking at causes for success/failure we have 2 questions:

1) Are causal factors likely stable over time?

2) Are these factors controllable?

Front 33

Correspondence Bias/Fundamental Attribution Error

Back 33

tendency to explain others' actions as corresponding to their dispositions

Front 34

Perceptual Salience

Back 34

more perceptually prominent to observer

Front 35

Actor-Observer Effects

Back 35

tendency to attribute our own behaviour mainly to situational causes but the behaviour of other mainly to dispositional causes

Front 36

Self-Serving Bias

Back 36

tendency to attribute our own + outcomes to internal causes and - outcomes to external causes

Front 37

Two explanations for Self-Serving Bias

Back 37

1) Cognitive: we expect ourselves to succeed. How we process social info.

2) Motivational: protect and enhance our self-esteem

Front 38

Self-Effacement/Modesty Bias

Back 38

Individuals make internal attributions for their failures and external attributions for their successes

Front 39

Holistic Thinking

Back 39

- associated with East Asia & Confucianism

- orientation to context. Relationships between people and social world.

- Knowledge is experience based

Front 40

Analytic Thinking

Back 40

- associated with classical greek & europeans

- focus on individuals detached from context

- formal logic

Front 41

Schemas

Back 41

- mental structures people use to organize their thoughts

- influence what info enters memory, gets attention, interpretation

Front 42

Person Schemas

Back 42

- schemas that hold info about how a person might behave

- influence what we notice and remember about a person

Front 43

Role Schemas

Back 43

centered around social roles

Front 44

Scripts

Back 44

schemas centered around common events

Front 45

Encoding Process

Back 45

determining which info is entered into memory

Front 46

Perseverance Effect

Back 46

tendency for beliefs and schemas to remain unchanged even in face of contradictory info

Front 47

Heuristics

Back 47

simple decision making rules we often use to make inferences or draw conclusions quickly and easily

Front 48

Representativeness Heuristic

Back 48

-helps us make a decision by comparing information to our mental prototypes

- often ignore base rates

Front 49

Availability Heuristic

Back 49

helps us make a decision based on how easy it is to bring something to mind

Front 50

Priming

Back 50

increased availability of info resulting from exposure to specific stimuli/events

- role in self-serving bias

Front 51

Automatic Processing

Back 51

after extensive experience w/ a task/type of info we reach a stage where we can perform the task or process in the info in a seemingly effortless, automatic, unconscious manner

Front 52

Negativity Bias

Back 52

Greater sensitivity to negative info than to +

Front 53

Optimistic Bias

Back 53

predisposition to expect things to turn out well overall

Front 54

Unrealistic Optimism

Back 54

tendency to believe you are more likely to experience + events, and less likely to experience negative events, when compared to similar

Front 55

Planning fallacy

Back 55

tendency to make optimistic predictions about completion of a task

Front 56

Counterfactual thinking

Back 56

tendency to imagine outcomes in a situation other than those that actually occurred

- Can be upward or downward

Front 57

Cognitive Tuning Model

Back 57

- Shwartz 1990

- suggests + affective states inform us that the current situation is safe

Front 58

Mood dependent memory

Back 58

what we remember while in a good mood may be determined in part by what we learned when previously in that mood

Front 59

Mood congruence effects

Back 59

We are more likely to store/remember + info when in a + mood and - info in a - mood

Front 60

Self-Reference Effect

Back 60

When we think about something in relation to ourselves, we are more likely to remember it

Front 61

Individualists

Back 61

concerned with personal success, achievement, and self-fulfillment

Front 62

Collectivists

Back 62

concerned with attaining group goals and solidarity/fulfilling social responsibilities

Front 63

Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale

Back 63

most frequently used assessment of global self-esteem

Front 64

Global Self-esteem

Back 64

person's overall evaluation of self and sense of self worth

Front 65

Social Comparison Scale

Back 65

How you think of yourself relative to others the same age, sex, and education as yourself

- <3 = below average

- >3 = above average

Front 66

Attitudes

Back 66

evaluations of people, ideas, or objects

Front 67

Three Components of Attitudes

Back 67

i) Cognitive Component

ii) Affective Component

iii) Behavioural Component

Front 68

Classical Conditioning

Back 68

phenomenon whereby a stimulus that elicits an emotional response is repeatedly paired with a neutral stimulus that does not, until the neutral stimulus takes on the emotional properties of the first stimulus

Front 69

Operant Conditioning

Back 69

phenomenon in which behaviours we freely chose to perform become more or less frequent, depending on whether they are followed by reward or punishment

Front 70

Characteristics of Affectively Based Attitudes (3)

Back 70

i) Do not result from rational examination of the issues

ii) Not governed by logic

iii) Often linked to person's values

Front 71

Behaviourally Based Attitudes

Back 71

Attitude based on observations of how one behaves toward an object

Front 72

Self-Perception Theory

Back 72

Under certain circumstances people don't know how they feel till they see how they behave

Front 73

Explicit Attitudes

Back 73

Attitudes we consciously endorese and can easily report

Front 74

Implicit Attitudes

Back 74

Involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious evaluations

Front 75

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Back 75

people experience dissonce when they do something that threatens their image of themselves as decent, kind, and honest

Front 76

Yale Attitude Change Approach

Back 76

study of conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages, focusing on source of communication, nature of communication, and nature of the audience

Front 77

Elaborate Likelihood Model of Persuasions

Back 77

explains two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change

Front 78

Central Route to Persuasion

Back 78

people are motivated and have ability to pay attention to the arguments so they elaborate and consider the communication carefully

Front 79

Peripheral Route to Persuasion

Back 79

people don't elaborate on arguments but are swayed by peripheral cues

Front 80

Fear-Arousing Communications

Back 80

persuasive message that attempts to change peoples attitudes by arousing their fears

Front 81

Heuristic-Systemic Model of Persuasion

Back 81

explanation of the two ways in which persuasive communciations can cause attitude change: systematically or using heuristics

Front 82

Attitude Inoculation

Back 82

making people immune to attempts to change their attitudes by initially exposing them to small doses of the arguments against their position. Forces you to consider arguments against your attitude before someone attacks it.

Front 83

Reactance Theory

Back 83

People don't like feeling their freedom to do/think whatever they want is being threatened

Front 84

Attitude Accessibility

Back 84

strength of association between an attitude object and person's evaluation of that object, measured by speed with which people can report how they feel about the object

Front 85

Theory of Planned Behaviour

Back 85

idea that people's intentions are the best predictors of their deliberate behaviours, which are determined by their attitudes toward specific behaviours, their subjective norms, and their perceived behavioural control

Front 86

Subjective Norms

Back 86

beliefs about how people they care about will view the behaviour in question

Front 87

Perceived Behavioural Control

Back 87

Intentions are influenced by ease with which they believe they can perform the behaviour

Front 88

Subliminal Advertising

Back 88

words/pictures not consciously perceived but may nevertheless influence people's judgements, attitudes, and behaviours

Front 89

Critical Thinking

Back 89

Examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

Front 90

Illusory Correlation

Back 90

there's an apparent relationship between 2 things but they probably aren't related

Front 91

The scientific method depends on:

Back 91

i) Accuracy

ii) Humility

iii) Objectivity

iv) Open-mindedness

Front 92

Third Variable Problem

Back 92

- A --> B

- B --> A

- C --> A + B

Front 93

Statistical Significance doesn't mean...

Back 93

- importance

- reality

- clinical significance

Front 94

Group Schemas

Back 94

Provide us with a notion about a particular group of people (eg. car sales people)

Front 95

Self Schemas

Back 95

Provide us with info about how we will likely react in circumstances

Front 96

Self-Fulfilling Prophesy

Back 96

when people act on their schemas in ways that reduce likelihood that new (unsupportive) info will be encountered

Front 97

Base Rate Information

Back 97

using info to make judgements on basis of relative frequencies of members of different categories in population

Front 98

Controlled Processing

Back 98

- thinking that is conscious, voluntary, intentional

- slower than automatic processing

- requires motivation & effort

Front 99

Theory of Automatic Believing

Back 99

i) Initially accept info (Automatic)

ii) Assess Truthfulness of Accepted Beliefs (Controlled)

iii) Unaccept if necessary (Controlled)

Front 100

Self-Concept

Back 100

- sum total of peoples beliefs and attitudes about themselves

- helps us determine how we process info related to ourselves

Front 101

Critical Thinking

Back 101

Examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

Front 102

Self-Complexity

Back 102

extent to which your self concept is organized so aspects of the self are distinct from one another

Front 103

Self-Esteem

Back 103

Individuals attitude toward the self

Front 104

Trait Self-Esteem

Back 104

fairly stable across different situations (general)

Front 105

State Self-Esteem

Back 105

depends on the current situation and surroundings

Front 106

3 components of self-evaluation

Back 106

i) Self-Assessment

ii) Self-Enhancement

iii) Self-Verification

Front 107

Self-Assessment

Back 107

- obtaining info about the self

- are we were we want to be? how can be get closer? (real vs. ideal self)

Front 108

Self-Enhancement

Back 108

- providing positive info about the self even if it's not true

- related to self-enhancing bias

Front 109

Self-Enhancing Bias

Back 109

Thinking we're better than average in every dimension

Front 110

Self-Verification

Back 110

- confirming what is known about the self

- we tend to seek info that verifies our own self-concept

- Swann study

Front 111

Two types of attitudes

Back 111

i) Uniform

ii) Ambivalent

Front 112

Uniform Attitudes

Back 112

- attitudes that are strongly held and polarize

- "all arrows facing in the same direction"

Front 113

Ambivalent Attitudes

Back 113

- attitudes that have positive and negative components--> pros and cons!

Front 114

Sufficient Justice

Back 114

If an individual can justify why their attitude and behaviour don't match, attitudes don't change

Front 115

Need for Cognition

Back 115

personality variable reflecting extent to which people engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive activities