Reviewer

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Exogenic Process

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Is affected by the subsystems and driven by the weather exogenic processes are the processes that shape the earth’s surface.

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shape the earth’s surface.

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Deposition

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The process in which sediments settle out of the transforming medium.

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Erosion and transportation

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the process by which soil and rock particles are worn away and moved elsewhere by gravity, or by moving transport agent- wind, gravity, water or ice.

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Weathering

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describes the breaking down or dissolving of rocks and minerals on the surface of the Earth. Water, ice, acids, salts, plants, animals, and changes in temperature are all agents of weathering.

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Agents of weathering

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Water, Salt, Plants, Animals, Temperature, Gravity

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Physical weathering

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also called mechanical weathering, is a process that causes the disintegration of rocks, mineral, and soils without chemical change.

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Freeze-thaw weathering

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is a process of erosion that happens in cold areas where ice forms. A crack in a rock can fill with water which then freezes as the temperature drops. As the ice expands, it pushes the crack apart, making it larger.

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Exfoliation

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is a form of mechanical weathering in which curved plates of rock are stripped from rock below. This results in domes or dome-like hills and rounded boulders. domes occur along planes of parting called joints, which are curved more or less parallel to the surface.

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Chemical weathering

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is caused by rainwater reacting with the mineral grains in rocks to form new minerals (clays) and soluble salts. These reactions occur particularly when the water is slightly acidic.

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• Carbonation

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carbon dioxide in the air dissolves in rainwater and becomes weakly acidic. This weak “carbonic acid” can dissolve limestone as it seeps into cracks and cavities. Over many years, solution of the rock can form spectacular cave systems

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•Hydrolysis

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the breakdown of rock by acidic water to produce clay and soluble salts. takes place when acid rain reacts with rock-forming minerals such as feldspar to produce clay and salts that are removed in solution.

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• Hydration

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a type of chemical weathering where water reacts chemically with the rocks, modifying its chemical structure. Example: H2O (water) is added to CaSO4 (calcium sulfate) to create CaSO4 + 2H2O (calcium sulfate dihydrate). It changes from anhydrite to gypsum.

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• Oxidation

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the breakdown of rock by oxygen and water, often giving iron- rich rocks a rustty-colored weathered surface.y-colored weathered surface.

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Biological Weathering

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weathering of rocks occurs when rocks are weakened by different biological agents like plants and animals. When plant roots grow through rocks, it creates fracture and cracks that result eventually to rock breakage.

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• Biological Weathering by Physical Means.

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Burrowing animals like shrews, moles and earthworms create holes on the ground by excavation and move the rock fragments to the surface. These fragments become more exposed to other environmental factors that can further enhance their weathering

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• Biological Weathering by Chemical Compounds.

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Some plants and animals also produced acidic substances that react with the rock and cause its slow disintegration

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Erosion

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Is the separation and removal of weathered rocks due to different agents like water, wind and ice that causes transportation of the minerals where they are deposited.

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Mass Wasting

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Is the movement of sediments downslope under the influence of gravity. “Fall, slide, avalanche, flow”

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Deposition

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Is the process in which the weathered materials carried out by erosion settle down in a particular location

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Structures of ocean basins

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1. CONTINENTAL Shelf, Continental Rise, Abyssal Plane, island, sea mounts, trench, mid oceanic bridge

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1. CONTINENTAL SHELF

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Partly shallow extension of the continent underwater.

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2. CONTINENTAL SLOPE

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Transition zone of continental shelf and deep ocean floor. It starts from oceanic crust to continental crust.

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3. CONTINENTAL RISE

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All basaltic and oceanic rocks are found here. It is the place where the sediments from land are washed. The continental margin starts from continental shelf up to continental rise

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4. ABYSSAL PLAIN

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The flattest part of the ocean. 50 % of the earth’s surface is being covered by this plain.

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7. TRENCH

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It is the deepest part of the ocean.

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8. MID-OCEANIC RIDGE

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The seafloor mountain system which is situated in the middle of the ocean basin.

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Wilson Cycle

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explains the process of the opening (beginning) and the closing (end) of an ocean which is driven by Plate Tectonics. This process is named after the Canadian Geophysicist J. Tuzo Wilson (1908-1993).

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Metamorphism

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•Metamorphism is a process that changes preexisting rocks into new forms because of increases in temperature, pressure, and chemically active fluids.

•Metamorphism may affect igneous, sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks.

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1. Temperature.

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It plays a crucial role in metamorphism. The heat affects the rock’s chemical composition, mineralogy, and texture

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BURIAL METAMORPHISM

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at a depth of about 8 to 15 kilometers from the surface of the crust, metamorphic reactions begin. The rocks adjust to the new temperature causing their atoms and ions to recrystallize and form new arrangements thereby creating new mineral assemblage

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BURIAL METAMORPHISM

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at a depth of about 8 to 15 kilometers from the surface of the crust, metamorphic reactions begin. The rocks adjust to the new temperature causing their atoms and ions to recrystallize and form new arrangements thereby creating new mineral assemblage

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GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT-

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The rate at which temperature increases with depth in the Earth’s crust which varies on plate tectonic settings like the thickness of the crust or whether the area is in the subduction zone between oceanic and continental or under the converging two continental crusts.

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2. Pressure

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Like temperature, it changes the composition, mineralogy, and texture of rocks. different in various tectonic settings, like temperature.

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Vertical stress or confining pressure

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is the stress or pressure exerted on the rock by the weight of overlying material such as in burial metamorphism. This type of pressure is the same in all directions and makes the rocks to fracture or deform.

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Vertical stress or confining pressure

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is the stress or pressure exerted on the rock by the weight of overlying material such as in burial metamorphism. This type of pressure is the same in all directions and makes the rocks to fracture or deform.

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b. Directed or differential pressure

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imposed by a force in a particular direction. Differential pressure is dominant at convergent boundaries where plates move towards each other and collide thus exerting force and cause rocks to deform.

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METAMORPHIC ROCK

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Is formed at the surfaced of the Earth through the process of metamorphism with recrystallization of mineral in rocks due to changes in pressure and temperature conditions.

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Contact metamorphism

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type of metamorphism where rock minerals and texture are changed, mainly by heat, due to contact with magma.

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Contact metamorphism

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type of metamorphism where rock minerals and texture are changed, mainly by heat, due to contact with magma.

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b. Regional metamorphism

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is a type of metamorphism where rock minerals and texture are changed by heat and pressure over a wide area or region.

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Francis Bacon

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in the mid-1600s Bacon noticed that there’s an odd puzzle piece fit between Africa and South America.

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Antonio Snider- Pellegrini

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In 1858, enhanced Bacon’s discovery by comparing the coastlines of Africa and South America but it was still rejected by most people.

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Antonio Snider- Pellegrini

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In 1858, enhanced Bacon’s discovery by comparing the coastlines of Africa and South America but it was still rejected by most people.

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Alfred Wegener

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• In 1915 he suggested that the fit between Africa and South America was due to Continental Drift. • German meteorologist; proposed the CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY. • Observation: JIGSAW PUZZLE • Continents were one a large landmass 200 mya - PANGAEA “ALL EARTH/ LAND”

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Proposed by Alfred Wegener (1912)

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• A large super-continent PANGEA split into smaller fragments about 200-300 million years ago. These then drifted apart to form the present arrangement of continents.

• Most geologists were highly skeptical and the idea was not widely accepted.

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Proposed by Alfred Wegener (1912)

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• A large super-continent PANGEA split into smaller fragments about 200-300 million years ago. These then drifted apart to form the present arrangement of continents.

• Most geologists were highly skeptical and the idea was not widely accepted.

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1. Jigsaw Puzzle

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Wegener noticed that if we could move present day continents around, several continents look like they would fit together like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle.

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2. Fossils

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Wegener also found fossils of the same plants and animals on different continents now separated by vast oceans. They could only be found this way if the continents had once been joined together.

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2. Fossils

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Wegener also found fossils of the same plants and animals on different continents now separated by vast oceans. They could only be found this way if the continents had once been joined together.

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MESOSAURUS

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known to have been a type of reptile, similar to the modern crocodile, which propelled itself through water with its long hind legs and limber tail. It lived during the early Permian period (286 to 258 million years ago) and its remains are found solely in South Africa and Eastern South America.

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Mapping the Mid-Ocean Ridge • The mid- ocean ridge is the longest chain of mountains in the world • In the 1950’s scientist mapped the mid- ocean ridge using sonar.

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The mid- ocean ridge is the longest chain of mountains in the world • In the 1950’s scientist mapped the mid- ocean ridge using sonar.

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SONAR

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is an instrument that uses sound waves to measure distance. - it bounces sound waves off underwater objects and records the echoes of these sounds. • The time that it takes the echo indicates the distance to the object. • The scientists found out that the ocean floor was not flat. • This discovery peaked their curiosity to discover what the ridge was and how it got there.

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Convection current

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carry heat from the molten materials in the mantle and core towards the lithosphere

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Seafloor Spreading

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It is the process in which the ocean floor is extended when two plates move apart

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a. Evidence from molten materials-

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rocks shaped like pillows (rock pillows) show that molten materials have erupted again and again from cracks along the mid- ocean ridge and cooled quickly.

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b. Evidence from magnetic strip

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rocks that make up the ocean floor lie in a pattern of magnetized stripes which hold a record of the reversals in magnetic field

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c. Evidence from drilling sample

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core samples from the ocean floor show that older rocks are found farther from the ridge; youngest rocks are in the midocean ridge

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• Radiogenic Heat

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o Generated by long-term radioactive decay o The thermal energy released as a result of spontaneous nuclear disintegration . o It involves the disintegration of natural radioactive elements inside the earth – like Uranium, Thorium and Potassium.

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1. Conduction

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processes happen in the earth’s surface and it directs the thermal settings in almost entire solid portions of the Earth and plays a very important role in the lithosphere.

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2. Convection

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is the transfer of heat by the movement of mass, and it is a more effective mode of heat transport in the Earth than pure conduction.

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3. Radiation

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the least important mode of heat transport in the Earth. The process of heat exchange between the Sun and the Earth, through radiation, controls the temperatures at the Earth's surface.

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WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MAGMA AND LAVA?

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Magma and lava are both molten rocks. However, they differ in location. Magma is found in the magma chamber of the volcano while lava is found on the surface of earth once the volcano erupts.

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How is magma formed?

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The magma present in the lower crust and upper mantle of the Earth is formed or generated through the process of partial melting.

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Partial Melting

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is the transformation of some fraction of the mass of a solid rock into a liquid as a result of decompression, heat input, or addition of a flux.

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1. An increase in temperature:

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Conduction in mantle happens when heat is transferred from hotter molten rocks to the Earth’s cold crust. This process is known as heat transfer. As magma rises, it is often hot enough to melt the rock it touches. It happens at convergent boundaries, where tectonic plates are crashing together.

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2. A decrease of pressure:

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Mantle rocks remain solid when exposed to high pressure. However, during convection, these rocks tend to go upward (shallower level) and the pressure is reduced. This triggers the melting of magma. This is known as decompression melting. This process occurs at the Mid-Ocean Ridge, an underwater mountain system.

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3. Addition of volatiles:

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When water or carbon dioxide is added to hot rocks, flux melting occurs. The melting points of minerals within the rocks decrease. If a rock is already close to its melting point, the effect of adding these volatiles can be enough to trigger partial melting. It occurs around subduction zones.

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4 major oceans

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1. North and south Pacific 2. North and south Atlantic 3. Indian 4. Arctic oceans

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5. ISLAND

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- It’s not just a piece of land floating up in the middle of the sea, it is part of the ocean basin that extends up from the ocean floor.

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Metamorphism

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•Metamorphism is a process that changes preexisting rocks into new forms because of increases in temperature, pressure, and chemically active fluids.

•Metamorphism may affect igneous, sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks.

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Foliation

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is a set of flat or wavy parallel cleavage planes produced by deformation under directed pressures

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CYNOGNATHUS

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which translates to “dog jaw” was a mammal- like reptile. Roaming the terrains during the Triassic period (250 to 240 million years ago), the Cynognathus was as large as a modern wolf. Its fossils are found only in South Africa.

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LYSTROSAURUS

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which translates to “shovel reptile,” is thought to have been an herbivore with a stout build like a pig. Lystrosaurus fossils are only found in Antarctica, India, and South Africa.

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• GLOSSOPTERIS

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Known as a woody, seed bearing tree, the Glossopteris is named after the Greek description for tongue due to its tongue shaped leaves and is the largest genus of the extinct descendant of seed ferns.

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3. Rock Sequence

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Wegener also found that mountain ranges have a similar sequence of type of rocks and age on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean, suggesting they were once part of the same mountain ranges

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Rock clues

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Rock and rock structures on different continents are the same where the land was once joined. EXAMPLE: NORTH AMERICA AND EUROPE

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4.Glacial Scars-

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Wegener found evidence of left behind by giant ice sheets from the same time period in southern Africa, India, Australia, and South America.

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WHAT COULD MOVE THE CONTINENTS?

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Alfred Wegener died on expedition in Greenland in 1930 still searching for answer =s to the question of what force could be reasonable for the movement of the continents.

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Who is Harry Hess

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a geologist and navy submarine commander during World War II. • Part of his cession had been to study the deepest parts of the ocean floor. •explained how the convection currents in the Earth’s interior make the seafloor spread.

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• Primordial Heat

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o Generated during earths formation. o The internal heat energy accumulated by dissipation in a planet during its first few million years of evolution. o Major source: accretion energy Conversion of kinetic energy of smaller planetary objects into heat as they collided on accretion.

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Magma

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is composed of semi-liquid hot molten rocks located beneath the Earth, specifically in the melted mantle rock and oceanic plate. This molten state, when solidified, creates igneous rocks found on the surface of the Earth.

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abrasion

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it happens as wind and water rush over rocks.

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MESOSAURUS

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known to have been a type of reptile, similar to the modern crocodile, which propelled itself through water with its long hind legs and limber tail. It lived during the early Permian period (286 to 258 million years ago) and its remains are found solely in South Africa and Eastern South America.