Psychology Unit 1 And 2 Exam Revision

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Psychology (Definition)

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Psychology is the study of mental processes and behaviour in humans.

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Behaviour (Definition)

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Any observable action made by a living person.

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Mental Processes (Definition)

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An individuals thoughts, feelings that are personal and cannot be directly observed.

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How are Mental Processes and Behaviour linked?

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Mental Processes and Behaviour are interrelated as mental processes are often interpreted by observing behaviour.

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Psychiatrist (Definition)

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A psychiatrist is a qualified medical doctor who has obtained additional qualifications to become a specialist in the diagnosis, treatment and prevention in mental illnessess and emotional problems.

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Psychologist (Definition)

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A psychologist is a person who is professionally qualified in psychology.

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Clinical Psychologist

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Offers a wide range of psychological services to people of all ages. Clinical Psychologists have specialist training in the assessment, diagnosis and treatment of mental health problems and mental illnesses.

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Clinical Neuropsychology

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Clinical Neuropsychologists assess the changes in behaviour and mental abilities following brain damage or abnormal brain function.

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Community Psychology

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Mainly concerned with community issues and helping people achieve their goals in areas such as community health and welfare.

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Counselling Psychology

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Assisting people of all ages to deal effectively with all kinds of personal and relationship issues that impact on their mental health and wellbeing.

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Educational or Developmental Psychology

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Combination of

Educational Psychology; Focuses on learning in an educational setting

Developmental Psychology: Focuses on the ways in which behaviour and mental processes change throughout the lifetime.

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Forensic Psychology

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A psychologist who is involved in the legal and criminal justice system. These psychologists may help police, provide expert opinion to the judge etc.

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Health Psychology

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Specialises in understanding the effects of psychological factors related to physical health and fitness.

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Organisational Psychology:

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Focuses on ways of assisting organisations to become more effective and productive while maintaining the wellbeing of their employees.

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Sport and Exercise Psychology

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Applies psychological theories and ideas in helping all types of athletes achieve peak performance.

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Biological Psychology

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Focuses on biological bodily structures, systems and activites that are associated wth behavioural and mental processes.

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Cognitive Psychology

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Focuses on how people acquire, process, remember and use information.

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Personality Psychology

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Studies people's characteristics and ways of thinking, feeling and behaving that makes up a person's personality.

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Social Psychology

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Studies how people's thoughts, feelings and behaviours can change in different social situations and how others can affect them.

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What is the Nature v Nurture debate?

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The debate involves whether we are born with our thoughts, feelings and behaviour (via genes) or whether we acquire them through life experiences. Also called (Heredity v Environment)

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What is the Mind - Body problem

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Involves questions about the relationship between brain activity and concious experience.

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Structuralism - Wilhelm Wundt

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Structuralism focuses on the structure of conciousness, like what makes up conciousness and how they are interrelated.

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Functionalism - William James

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Functionalism focuses on studying the functions or purposes that mental processes serve in enabling people to adapt to their environment. Functionalists are interested in how and why our thoughts and feelings lead to how we behave.

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Psychoanalaysis - Sigmund Freid

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Psychoanalaysis focuses on the roles of unconcious conflicts and motivations in understand and explaining mental processes.

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Behaviourism - John B. Watson

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Behaviourism involves understanding and explaining how behaviour is learned and moulded by experience.

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Humanisn - Carl Rogers

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Humanism is an approach to understanding b and explaining behaviour and mental processes that focuses on the uniqueness of each individual person and potential of all human beings to fulfill their lives and the fact that everyone is born 'good'.

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Biological Perspective

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The biological perspective focuses on the biological influences on behaviour and mental processes, including the brain and nervous system, hormone system, the immune system and genetics.

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Behavioural Perspective

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The behavioural perspective focuses on how behaviour is acquired or modified by environmental consequences such as rewards and punishments.

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Reinforcement

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The principle of reinforcement states that the consequences of a behaviour determine whether the behaviour will be more or less likely to be repeated.

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Cognitive Perspective

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Focuses on how we acquire, process, remember and use information about us and the world around us.

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Sociocultural Perspective

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Focuses on the roles of social and cultural influences on human behaviour and mental processes.

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An Eclectic Perspective

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The eclectic perspective draws on many theories, ideas and research methods from different perspective.

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Scientific Method

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Refers to the systematic approach for planning, conducting and reporting research which involves collecting empirical evidence.

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Empirical Evidence

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Empirical evidence is data that is collected by direct observation, or more frequently in psychology, by experimentation.

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Replication

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Replication involves conducting a study again to ensure the similar results are achieved and to ensure that the results are valid and can be applied to a wider population.

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Why is psychology regarded as a science?

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Because psychologists devise experiments to test their theories and collect their data much like Chemistry, Biology and Physics.

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Step 1 - Psych Research

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Identification of the Problem:

First step is to identify the problem or topic of interest to be researched. Researcher can also look at previous research into that topic.

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Step 2 - Psych Research

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Construction of Hypothesis:

The second step in psychological research is to construct a hypothesis for the research.

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Hypothesis

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A hypothesis is a testable prediction of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics.

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Characteristics of Hypothesis

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- Prepared as a carefully written worded statement

- Expressed clearly and precisely

- Written as single sentence

- Stated in a way that can be tested

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Step 3 - Psych Research

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Designing the Method:

Third step is to determine how the hypothesis will be tested. When designing method, researcher must also decide which participants, how many participants, how they'll be tested, how they will be allocated and how they'll be selected.

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Participants

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Participants are the people who take part in the research

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Step 4 - Psych Research

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Collecting the Data:

Fourth step in psychological research is to collect the data. There are various ways for psychologists to collect their data

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Step 5 - Psych Research

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Analysing the Data:

Once the data has been collected, next step is to summarise, organise and represent the data in a logical way to help determine whether the hypothesis is supported or not.

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Raw Data

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Raw data is data that hasn't yet been organised and summarised. Raw data almost is never included in the report however it is included in the appendices sometimes.

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Step 6 - Psych Research

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Interpreting the Data:

Once data has been analysed, the data needs to be interpreted and explained. This includes drawing a conclusion from the results obtained.

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Conclusion

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A conclusion is a judgement about what the results of a research study mean.

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Generalisation

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A generalisation is a judgement about how widely the finding of a research study can be applied.

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External Validity

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External Validity means that the that the conclusion(s) made from the research can be generalised to the population from which the sample in the study was drawn.

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Step 7 - Psych Research

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The final step involves reporting the research findings to other who may be interested in the research.

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Benefits of Reporting the Research Study

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Reporting the research informs other psychologists, researchers and even the general public. They can check the accuracy of the findings by replicating the study. It also enables the general public to benefit from the findings.

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Research Method

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A research method is a particular way of conducting a research study or investigation to collect data.

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Experiment

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An experiment is used to test whether one variable influences or causes a change in another variable. An experiment enables the researcher to investigate and find out the causes of things.

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Variable

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A variable is something that vary in amount or kind over time.

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Independent Variable

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In an experiment, one variable is changed to test if and how it affects another variable. The variable that is manupilated or changed is the independent variable.

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Dependent Variable

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The variable that is used to observe and measure the effects of the IV is called the dependent variable.

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Extraneous Variables

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In an experiment, an extraneous variable is a variable other than the IV that can cause a change in the DV.

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Experimental Group

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In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the IV is called the experimental group.

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Control Group

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In an experiment, the group that is NOT exposed to the IV is called the control group. The control group provides a standard of comparison against which the experimenter can compare the performance of the experimental group in order to determine whether the independent variable has affected the dependent variable.

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Advantages of Experimental Research

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1. The IV can be manipulated to test the effect it has on the DV, therefore making it possible to test if there is a cause and effect relationship.

2. The experimenter can report the findings in such a way so that others can replicate the experimental research and which ensures greater validity and reliability in the results obtained.

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Disadvantages of Experimental Research

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1. It is often impossible to control all extraneous variables because of the unpredictability of real life.

2. Some things cannot be measured in the laboratory. Nor is the laboratory the best place to test variables such as love, hate and grief.

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Sample

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A sample is a subsection, or smaller group, of research participants selected from a wider range of research interest.

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Population

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The term population refers to the entire group of research interest from which a sample is drawn.

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Sampling

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The process of selecting participants for a sample is called sampling.

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Representative Sample

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A representative sample is a sample that is approximately the same as the population from which it is drawn in every important participant characteristic.

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Random Sampling

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Random Sampling is a sampling procedure that ensures that every member of the population of research interest has a genuinely equal chance of being selected as a participant for the research study.

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Stratified Sampling

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Stratified sampling involves dividing the population to be sampled into different subgroups, or strata, then selecting a separate sample from each subgroup (called stratum) in the same proportions as they occur in the population of interest

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Random Stratified Sampling

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Random Stratified Sampling involves selecting a random sample from each stratum of a stratified sample

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Random Allocation

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In random allocation, also called random assignment, participants selected for the experiment are just as likely to be in the experimental group as the control group.

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Descriptive Research

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Descriptive Research focuses on studying and describing one or more aspects of thoughts, feelings or behaviour as they occur at a given time and place without necessarily explaining why.

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Case Study

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A case study is an intensive, in-depth investigation of some behaviour or event of interest in an individual, small group or situation.

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Advantages of a Case Study

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- Case studies can be a valuable source of hypotheses for further research

- There is no manipulation of variables

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Disadvantages of a Case Study

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- Can't test cause and effect relationship

- Small sample size

- Susceptible to biased information from participant or observer

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Observation

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Refers to any means by which a phenomenon is studied, including the data that represents a phenomenon such as scores or written responses.

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Observational Study

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Involves collection of data by carefully watching and recording behaviour as it occurs.

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Naturalistic Observation

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Naturalistic Observation involves a naturally occuring behaviour of interest is viewed by a researcher in such a way that the presence of the researcher has no influence on the observed behaviour.

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Participant Observation

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This involves the researchers actually participating in the activity being observed and may make themselves viewable as being part of the group or situation being observed.

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Non Participant Observation

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When researchers try to conceal their presence while making observations.

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Advantages of Observational Studies

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- Naturalistic Observation enables researchers to gain more accurate information about the typical behaviours of organisms.

- Naturalisic observation doesn't require the co-operation of the participants being observed.

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Disadvantages of Observational Studies

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- Sometimes it requires alot of patience for the behaviour to occur as the participants aren't under any instructions

- It can be difficult to determine the cause of behaviour

- Observer bias

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Data

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In research, the information collected is called data

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Qualitative Data

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Qualitative Data involves information about the 'qualities' or characteristics of what is being studied.

E.g. Verbal Statements, Written Statements, Descriptions made by researcher

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Quantitative Data

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Quantitative Data includes numerical information on the 'quantity' or amount of what is being observed.

E.g. Percentages, Numbers, Averages, Times

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Qualitative Research

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Involves the collection of qualitative data

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Quantitative Research

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Involves collection of quantitative data

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Percentage

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A percentage is a statistic that expresses a number as a fraction of 100.

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Table

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An orderly arrangement and display of data in columns and rows

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Graph

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A graph is a pictorial representation of data

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Bar Chart

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A bar chart is a type of graph that uses seperate bars that are adjacent but not touching to enable comparisons of different categories of data.

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Histogram

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A histogram is a graph that shows the frequency of which a particular score (or range of) occurs in a set of data

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Pie Chart

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A pie chart is a circular diagram that shows the proportions of values or scores for different categories of data.

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Line Graph

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A line graph is a pictorial representation that indicates the relationship between two factors, or two variables in an experiment.

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Frequency Polygon

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A frequency polygon is a graph that shows the frequency of data using a line graph.

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Ethics

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Ethics refers to the standard that guide individuals to identify good, desirable or acceptable conduct.

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Roles of Experimenter - Ethics

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- Take into consideration the ethical issues involved

- Is responsible for ensuring that research is conducted in a manner that doesn't harm participants

- Abide by the participants rights

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Confidentiality

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Any information that may identify details of their involvement in a study (for example, test results or personal data) cannot be revealed unless their written consent is obtained.

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Voluntary Participation

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Ensure that the participants voluntarily participate, they shouldn't be forced to.

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Withdrawal Rights

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The experimenter must inform participants of procedures that are going to be used, that they are free to participate, decline to participate or to withdraw at any time

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Informed Consent

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Where possible, participants must be informed of what the study is about and the reasons behind it.

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Deception

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In cases where giving participants full information of the study is deemed inappropriate because it might tamper the results, experimenters must ensure there is no distress involved and participants are given all details at the end of the study.

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Debriefing

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Debriefing involves clarifying each participant’s understanding of the study after it has been conducted. This includes correcting any mistaken attitudes or beliefs that participants may have about the study. At the end, experimenter must also provide an opportunity for participants to obtain results and conclusions.

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Descriptive Statistics

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Descriptive Statistics are used for summarising and interpret the results obtained from the research.

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Inferential Statistics

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Inferential Statistics are used for interpreting and giving meaning to results.

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Sensation

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Sensation is the process in which our sense organs and receptors detect and respond to information that stimulates them.

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Perception

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Perception refers to the process in which we give meaning to sensory information, resulting in our personal interpretation of that information.

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Visual Perception System

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The visual perception system consists of the complete network of physiological structures involved in vision.

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Cornea

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Light initally enters through the cornea, a transparent, convex - shaped covering which protects the eye and helps focus the light onto the retina. It focuses light onto the retina by refracting.

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Aqueous Humour

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Watery fluid that helps maintain the shape of they eyeball and provides nutrients and oxygen to the eye, aswell as taking away waste products.

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Pupil

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The pupil is not a structure itself, but rather an opening in the iris that helps control the amount of light entering into the eye.

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Pupil Dilation and Contraction

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In dim lighted areas, the pupil dilates to let more light in. Convesrly, when there is bright light, the pupil contracts to restrict the amount of light entering the eye.

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Iris

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The iris surround the pupil and is the coloured part of the eye. The iris is a ring of muscles that expand or contract to change the size of the pupil which subsequently changes the amount of light that enters the eye.

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Lens

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Having passed through the pupil, light then enters the lens. The lens is a transparent, flexible, convex structure that plays the major role in focusing light onto the retina.

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How the Lens works

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In order to focus light onto the retina, the lens changes its shape according to the distance of the object being viewed. It's shape is changed by ciliary muscles which are attached to the lens. These muscles expand and contract enabling the lens to bulge to focus on nearby objects and to flatten to focus on objects in the distance.

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Ciliary Muscles

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Ciliary muscles are attached to the lens and they expand and contract so the lens can expand and contract.

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Vitreous Humour

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After light passes through the lens, it continues to the vitreous humour. The vitreous humour is a jelly like substance which helps maintain the shape of the eyeball and also helps focus light.

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Photoreceptors

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Found in the back of the eye in the retina, photoreceptors are light sensitive, visual receptor cells.

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Retina

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The retina receives and absorbs light, and also processes images. The image that is processed onto the retina is actually upside down and is a back to front image of what is actually being seen.

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Optic Nerve

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After the retina receives and processed by the retina, the visual information is sent along the optic nerve to a part of the brain called the visual cortex for further processing.

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Blind Spot

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The blind spot is the point of entry of the optic nerve on the retina which is insensitive to light.

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Fovea

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The fovea is the central part of the macula, the visual cells in the fovea are cones, The rods are packed right outside the fovea.

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Reception

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Reception is the process in which the eye receives light incoming from the external environment and focuses it onto the retina. The retina contains millions of specialised neurons that receive and respond to light - photoreceptors.

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Types of Photoreceptors

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Rods

Cones

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Rods

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Rods respond to very low levels of light and are primarily responsible for night vision.

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Cones

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Cones respond to high levels of light, they are primarily responsible for our vision in well lit conditions.

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What rods and cones do

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When rods and cones detect light, they respond by changing the light energy into a form of energy that can be sent to the visual cortex.

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Transduction

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Transduction is the process in which rods and cones convert light energy into electrical impulses. This is necessary so that it can be sent along the optic nerve.

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Transmission

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Transmission involves sending information in the form of electrical impulses along the optic nerve to the brain.

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Organisation

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Organisation in Visual Perception involes assembling or arranging the features of a visual image in a meaningful way. How we actually go about organising visual information partly involves the use of visual perception principles.

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Interpretation

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Interpretation is the process of giving meaning to visual information so that we can understand what we are looking at.

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Difference between Organisation and Interpretation?

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Organisation assists our interpretation of objects and events, but it does not always explain how we actually ‘make sense’ of visual information.

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Visual Perception Principles

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Visual Perception Principles are 'rules' that we apply to visual information that assists in organising and interpreting the information in meaningful ways. These principles can be broken into three categories; Gestalt Principles, Depth Principles and Perceptual Constancies.

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Gestalt Principles

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Gestalt principles refer to the way in which we organise the features of a visual scene by grouping them to perceive a whole, complete form.

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The Gestalt Principles (What are they?)

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- Figure Ground

- Similarity

- Proximity

- Closure

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Figure Ground

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When we use figure–ground, we organise visual information by perceptually dividing a visual scene into a ‘figure’. The line of seperation between the figure and the ground is known as the contour.

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Closure

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Closure refers to the perceptual tendency to mentally ‘close up’, fill in or ignore gaps in a visual image and to perceive objects as a whole.

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Similarity

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The principle of similarity involves the tendency to perceive parts of a visual image that have similar features — such as size, shape, texture or colour as being whole.

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Proximity

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The principle of proximity is the tendency to perceive parts of a visual image which are positioned close together as belonging together in a group.

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Depth Perception

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Depth perception is the ability to accurately estimate the distance of objects and therefore perceive the world in three dimensions.

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Depth Cues

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Depth cues are sources of information from the environment (external cues) or from within our body (internal cues) that help us to perceive how far away objects are and therefore to perceive depth.

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Binocular Depth Cues

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Binocular Depth Cues require the use of both eyes to be working together in order to provide information to the brain about depth and distance. There are only two; Convergence and Retinal Disparity.

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Convergence

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Convergence involves the brain detecting and interpreting depth from changes in tension of the eye muscles that occur when two eye muscles turn towards each other to focus on objects that are close. Greater tension = when object gets closer. Less tension = When object is further away.

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Retinal Disparity

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Since our eyes are 6 - 7 cms apart, each retina casts a slighty different image comparted to the other. Retinal Disparity refers to this and it enables us to make judgements about the depth or distance of an object.

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Monocular Depth Cues

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Monocular Depth Cues require the use of only one eye to provide cues about the depth and distance.

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Types of Monocular Depth Cues

(The different cues)

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- Linear Perspective

- Accomodation

- Height in the Visual Field

- Interposition

- Texture Gradient

- Relative Size

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Accommodation

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Accommodation involves the automatic adjustment of the shape of the lens to focus an object in response to changes in how far away it is.

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Pictorial Cues

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Pictorial Cues are named so because artists use them to create depth and distance on two dimensional surfaces. The five pictorial cues are

- Linear Perspective

- Height in the Visual Field

- Interposition

- Texture Gradient

- Relative Size

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Linear Perspective

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Linear Perspective is the apparent convergence or 'joining' of two parallel lines as they recede into the distance.

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Interposition

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Interposition occurs when one object partially blocks or covers the other and the partially blocked object is perceived as being further away.

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Texture Gradient

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Texture Gradient refers to the gradual reduction of detail that occurs in a surface as it recedes into the distance, compared to a surface that is close and perceived in fine detail.

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Relative Size

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Relative Size refers to the tendency to perceive the object that produces the largest image on the retina as being closer. However we take into account what we know about the objects and use our past experience to judge the size.

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Height in the Visual Field

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Height in the visual field refers to the location of objects in our field of vision whereby objects that are located closer to the horizon are perceived as being more distant to objects that are closer to where you are looking from.

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Perceptual Constancies

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Perceptual constancy refers to the tendency to perceive an object as remaining stable and unchanging despite any changes that may occur to the image cast on the retina. Three perceptual constancies involve size, shape and brightness.

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Size Constancy

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Size constancy involves recognising that an object’s actual size remains the same, even though the size of the image it casts on each retina changes.

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Shape Constancy

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Shape constancy is the tendency to perceive an object as maintaining its shape despite any change in shape of the image of the object on the retina.

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Brightness Constancy

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Brightness constancy is the tendency to perceive an object as maintaining its level of brightness in relation to its surroundings, despite changes in the amount of light being reflected from the object to the retina.

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Perceptual Set

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Perceptual Set is the predisposition to perceive something with what we expect it to be.

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Context

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In Visual Perception, context refers to the setting or environment in which a perception is made.

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Motivation

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Motivation refers to processes within us to activate behaviour that we direct towards achieveing a particular goal. For example when we see what we want to see rather than what is actually there.

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Emotional State

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Our emotional state, can also influence the way in which we perceive visual information. For example, a child who is afraid of being in their darkened bedroom may interpret the shadow of their dressing gown hanging on the back of the bedroom door as a ghost, or the teddy bear sitting on the end of the bed as a monster.

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Past Experience

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Past Experience refers to our personal experiences throughout our whole life. Our unique combination of past experiences can lead to many individual differences in perception.

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Culture

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Culture refers to the way of life of a particular community or group that sets it apart from other communities or groups. Experience with or in a particular culture can influence the way in which we process and interpret visual information.

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Visual Illusion

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A visual illusion is a misinterpretation (distortion or mistake) of real sensory information.

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Muller Lyer Illusion

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The Muller Lyer Illusion is a visual illusion in which one of two lines of equal length, each of which has opposite shaped ends, is incorrectly perceived of as being longer than the other.

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Lifespan Development

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Age related changes that occur from birth, throughout a persons life and into old age.

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Developmental Change

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A relatively permanent or long lasting change throughout our lifetime.

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Age Range of Infancy

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Birth to Two Years

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Age Range of Childhood

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Two to Ten Years

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Adolescence

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Ten to Twenty Years

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Early Adulthood

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Twenty to Fourty Years

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Middle Age

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Fourty to Sixty-Five Years

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Old Age

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Sixty-Five and beyond

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Infancy

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Many psychological factors are developing at this stage; perceptual abilities, use of language, ways of thinking etc. The bond between infant and caregiver is important as it sets the foundation for the infants emotional development.

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Childhood

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Children start becoming more independent. Apart from basic education skills, much time is spent in play and learning social skills. Cognitive skills also develop and an understanding of what is right and wrong.

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Adolescence

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Puberty occurs at this stage, which brings on many physical and psychological changes. Adolescence is dominated by seeking independence and creating their own identity. Peer pressure and the influence of friends become more important. Thought processes are also more complex, logical and idealistic.

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Early Adulthood

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Stage of establishing personal and financial independence and establishing a career. Also a stage where adults select a partner, develop relationships or start a family.

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Middle Age

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Middle Age is a period of expanding social and personal involvements and responsibilities, advancing a career, and supporting offspring in their development.

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Older Age

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Retirement, Decreasing strength and stamina, declining health, death of relatives and friends. Often a liberating time for people in their older ages as they have less committments.

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Physical Development

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Involves changes in the body, and its various systems, such as development and nervous system, bones and muscles, motor skills.

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Social Development

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Involves changes in an individual's relationships with other people and their skills in interacting with others such as the ability to form and maintain close relationships.

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Cognitive Development

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Involves changes in an individuals mental abilities, such as processing of information through perception, learning and moral reasoning.

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Emotional Development

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Involves changes in how an individual experiences different feelings and how these are expressed, interpreted and dealth with.

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Quantitative Changes

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Quantitative Changes are variations in the quantity, or 'amount' of a thought, feeling or behaviour. These changes are usually expressed as numbers.

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Qualitative Changes

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Qualitative Changes are those that vary in 'quality', 'kind' or 'type'. They are changes that make the individual different from the way they were before.

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Heredity

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Heredity involves the transmission of characteristics from biological parents to their offspring at time of conception.

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Environment

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In Psychology, the term environment is used to refer to all the experiences, objects and events to which we are exposed to throughout our lifetime.

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Maturation

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Maturation refers to the orderly and sequential developmental changes that occur in the nervous system as well as other bodily structures controlled by our genes.

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Psychological Development

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Made up of Social Development, Emotional Development and Cognitive Development.

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Principle of Readiness

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The principle of readiness states that unless the necessary bodily structures are sufficiently mature, then no amount of practice will produce the particular behaviour.

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Sensitive Period

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A sensitive period is a sensitive period of time when an individual is more sensitive to certain influences from their environment.

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Longitudinal Study

Back 190

A longitudinal study is a long term investigation that studies that same group of people for an extended period of time.

Front 191

Cross Sectional Study

Back 191

The cross sectional study selects and compares groups of participants of different ages over a short period of time.

Front 192

Advantages and Disadvantages of Longitudinal Studies

Back 192

Adv.

- Useful way of examining consistencies in behaviour over time

- Because they use the same participants, they allow psychologists to to study ways in which early development may affect later development.

Disadv.

- Expensive

- Hard to keep track of same participants around the world

- Participants my lose interest in study

Front 193

Advantages and Disadvantages of Cross Sectional Studies

Back 193

Adv.

- Inexpensive

- Not too consuming

- Easy to undertake

Disadv.

- Other factors may affect the differences in age groups

- Generational Influence

Front 194

Theory

Back 194

In psychology, a theory is a set of organised ideas, proposed to describe and/or explain one or more aspects of behaviour and mental processes.

Front 195

Piaget's Four Stage Theory

Back 195

Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget's best known theory of cognitive development proposes that we move through four distinct stages from birth to adulthood.

Front 196

Sensorimotor Stage

Back 196

The sensorimotor stage (0 - 2) is a stage where infants construct their understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with motor abilities.

Front 197

Key Accomplishments in Sensorimotor Stage

Back 197

Object Permanence

Front 198

Object Permanence

Back 198

Object Permanence refers to the understanding that objects still exist even if they cannot be seen or touched.

Front 199

Preoperational Stage

Back 199

As children progress through the preoperational stage, children become increasingly able to represent internal events (think about and imagine things in their mind).

Front 200

Key Accomplishments in Preoperational Stage

Back 200

Egocentrism

Animism

Transformation

Centration

Reversibility

Front 201

Egocentrism

Back 201

Having difficulty in seeing or being unable to see things from another person's point of view.

Front 202

Animism

Back 202

Animism is a belief that everything that exists has some kind of conciousness or awareness.

Front 203

Transformation

Back 203

Understanding that something can change from one state (form or structure) to another.

Front 204

Centration

Back 204

A child in the pre operational stage can only focus on one quality or feature of an object at a time.

Front 205

Reversibility

Back 205

The ability to follow a line of reasoning back to its starting point.

Front 206

Concrete Operational Stage

Back 206

The concrete operational stage (7 - 12) is where the thinking of concrete operational children revolves around what they know and what they can experience through their senses.

Front 207

Key Accomplishments in Concrete Operational Stage

Back 207

Conservation (Volume, Number, Mass and Length)

Classification

Front 208

Conservation

Back 208

Conservation refers to the idea that an object does not change its weight, mass, volume or area when the object changes its shape or appearance.

Front 209

Classification

Back 209

Classification is the ability to organise information into categories based on common features that sets them apart from other classes or groups.

Front 210

Formal Operational Stage

Back 210

The formal operational stage (12+) is where more complex thought processes are evident and thinking becomes increasingly sophiscticated.

Front 211

Key Accomplishments in Formal Operational Stage

Back 211

Abstract Thinking

Logical Thinking

Front 212

Abstract Thinking

Back 212

Abstract Thinking is a way of thinking that does not rely on being able to see or visualise in order to understand concepts. For example; What is honesty? Also develop their beliefs and ideas.

Front 213

Logical Thinking

Back 213

Logical Thinking involves individuals developing their own strategies to solve problems, develop hypotheses and test solutions.

Front 214

Criticisms of Piaget's Theory

Back 214

- The key cognitive accomplishments described by Piaget for the different stages are often achieved by children younger than the proposed age range by Piaget.

- Small number of participants Piaget used in his experiments and he used to experiment on his own children.

Front 215

Moral Dilemma

Back 215

A moral dilemma is a social problem that which has two or more solutions, each of which is 'wrong' in some way.

Front 216

Moral Behaviour

Back 216

Moral Behaviour is behaviour that is considered proper or ethical according to society or culture.

Front 217

Moral Development

Back 217

Moral Development involves the gradual development of an individual's concept of right and wrong.

Front 218

Preconventional Level (Kohlberg Theory)

Back 218

At the preconventional level (0 - 9) children have little awareness of moral behaviour which is socially or culturally acceptable. They see rules as something they have to follow, because other people tell them to. At the preconventional level, what is right usually depends on if they can get away with it or if it's personally satisfying.

Front 219

Stages in Preconventional Level

Back 219

- Obedience and Punishment Orientation

- Naively Egotistical Orientation

Front 220

Obedience and Punishment Orientation

Back 220

In this stage, children follow rules to avoid punishment. Their behaviour is largely based on fear rather than thinking it its right or wrong.

Front 221

Naively Egotistical Orientation

Back 221

In this stage, children start to do things to please others because they think they will be rewarded for doing the right thing

Front 222

Conventional Level (Kohlberg Theory)

Back 222

People who develop moral reasoning at the conventional level are considerate of the thoughts and feelings of others, have adopted many moral values and seek to obey the rules set out by others.

Front 223

Stages in Conventional Level

Back 223

- Good boy/Nice Girl Orientation

- Law and Social Order Maintaining Orientation

Front 224

Good Boy/Nice Girl Orientation

Back 224

Individuals in this stage obey rules to get praise from others or approval from people who are important to them. However unlike people in Stage 1, individuals in Stage 3 abide by rules or to gain social acceptance whereas in Stage 1, individuals follow rules because they fear the consequences.

Front 225

Law and Order Social Maintaining Orientation

Back 225

Individuals in this stage shift their focus to social institutions such as the law, school or church. They seek to avoid criticism from police, teachers or priests and are law abiding citizens.

Front 226

Postconventional Level

Back 226

The postconventional level (16+) involves an individual where their decision to do what is morally 'right' is guided by their conscience.

Front 227

Legalistic-Social-Contract Orientation

Back 227

Individuals in this stage, choose moral principles to guide their behaviour, being careful not to interfere with the rights of others.

Front 228

Universal-Ethical Orientation

Back 228

This stage, the most advanced stage of moral reasoning, is where the individual knows that what is moral is not simply what the majority of people want to do. They want laws that are best for everyone, regardless of whether society agrees.

Front 229

Criticisms of Kohberg's Theory

Back 229

- Doesn't accurately describe the moral development of women as his data was mainly collected from male participants.

- His method of data collection which involved questioning children was criticised as maybe sometimes the children didn't understand what Kohlberg was asking them.

- There are also cultural differences in moral development as some cultures possess various views on what is right and wrong

Front 230

What is mental health?

Back 230

Mental Health is when a person has effective psychological functioning, is not distressed, is able to cope with everyday life and has thoughts, feelings and behaviours that is typical of them and normal for the society or culture they belong in.

Front 231

What is a mental health problem?

Back 231

A mental health problem is when the difficulties faced by an individual is mild, short term and able to be treated within a relatively short period of time.

Front 232

What is the difference between a mental health problem and a mental illness?

Back 232

A mental health problem is when the difficulties experienced by a person are mild, temporary and able to be treated within a relatively short period of time, while a mental illness is more serious and likely to persist for a relatively long period of time.

Front 233

What is a mental illness?

Back 233

A mental illness is often described as psychological dysfunction, usually involving distress, impaired ability to cope with everyday life, and thoughts, feelings and/or behaviour that are not typical of the person and may also be inappropriate in their culture or society.

Front 234

What is psychological dysfunction?

Back 234

A breakdown in cognitive, emotional and/or behavioural 'functioning' during which a person's thoughts, feelings and behaviour from that would usually occur or be expected of that individual.

Front 235

What is distress? (Characteristic of Mental Illness)

Back 235

When a person is distressed, they are extremely upset. People experience distress in their everyday life, however, it is also often present when people experience mental illness.

Front 236

What is impaired functioning? (Characteristic of Mental Illness)

Back 236

Inability to cope with everyday life. People can also experience this as part of their everyday life, however, it is also often present when people experience mental illness.

Front 237

What is atypical? (Characteristic of Mental Illness)

Back 237

Atypical behaviour is when a person responds in a way(s) that is not normal for them.

Front 238

Society and/or Culture? (Characteristic of Mental Illness)

Back 238

Each culture/society has its own set of norms about what is considered normal and abnormal behaviour.

Front 239

What is a psychotic illness?

Back 239

A mental illness or didorder that involves loss of contact with reality

Front 240

What are delusions?

Back 240

Delusions are false beliefs that do not match reality.

Front 241

What are hallucinations?

Back 241

Hallucinations are when the person may hear, see, smell, taste or feel things that are not actually present.

Front 242

What is a non-psychotic illness?

Back 242

A non-psychotic illness is when the individual remains in touch with reality despite their dysfunctional thoughts, feelings and behaviour.

Front 243

Incidence of mental illness

Back 243

Between the ages of 16 - 85, 45% stated they had suffered from a mental illness. Out of this 45%, 20% of them indicated they had suffered in the past 12 months.

The most common age group that mental illnesses affect are 16 - 24.

Front 244

Most prevalent types of mental illnesses

Back 244

The most prevalent types of mental illnesses are non psychotic illnesses. Out of these non psychotic illnesses, anxiety disorder is the most prevalent followed by substance abuse disorder and depression.

Front 245

Gender Differences (Mental Illness)

Back 245

Males and females experience similar rates of mental illness. However there is a gender difference in the types of mental illnesses experienced. Males experience abuse substance abuse disorders more than females. Whereas females report experiencing anxiety related disorders and depression more than males.

Front 246

DSM - 5 (What it stands for and what it is)

Back 246

The DSM 5 stands for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders and it's a diagnostic manual used by many psychologists and psychiatrists around the world to help them classify and diagnose mental illnesses.

Front 247

DSM - 5 (What info it provides)

Back 247

Symptoms associated with the disorder

Typical course of each disorder

The age at which people are likely to develop the disorder

Degree of impairment

Prevalence of disorder

Whether disorder is likely to affect others in family

Relationship of the disorder to gender, age and culture

Front 248

Labelling (What it is)

Back 248

Labelling is the process of classifying and naming a mental illness following a diagnosis.

Front 249

Labelling (Advantages)

Back 249

Helps clinical psychologists recognise and describe a mental illness.

Assists in identifying appropriate treatment, therapy and support

Ensures common understanding amoung mental health professionals

Assists communication

Front 250

Labelling (Disadvantages)

Back 250

Can influence how the person thinks about themselves

Can influence the way in which they are viewed by others in the community

Creates misunderstandings about behaviour

Labels stick with them for life

Front 251

Rosenhan Study

Back 251

The Rosenhan study included D.L. Rosenhan sending eight of his colleagues to mental hospitals saying they kept hearing voices in their heads saying the word 'thud'. These people were admitted and diagnosed with schizophrenia. Rosenhan had instructed them to act normal after being diagnosed and not to show any more symptoms. These pseudo patients were held from the range of 7 - 52 as days as being schizophrenia patients. The fake patients weren't identified as fake and when they were released, Rosenhan published the study highlighting the labelling system wasn't working.

Front 252

ADHD - What it is

Back 252

ADHD is characterised by inattention and hyperactive behaviour at home, school and social settings, to a degree that is inappropriate for the person's age and development.

Front 253

ADHD - Symptoms

Back 253

Inattention

Hyperactivity

Impulsivity

Front 254

ADHD - Incidence

Back 254

About 7% of Australian children have ADHD.

Another estimate based on medicine prescribed is that 2.3% to 20% in school aged children and adolescents. 90% of children diagnosed with ADHD are boys.

Front 255

ADHD - Treatment

Back 255

Medication

Behavioural Therapies

Front 256

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy

Back 256

CBT is a therapy process that involves changing the way a person thinks about an event or situation in order to alter their feelings and behaviour.

Front 257

Anxiety Disorder - What it is

Back 257

A mental disorder characterised by persistent feelings of tension, distress, nervousness and apprehension or fear about the future

Front 258

Anxiety Disorder - Symptoms

Back 258

Tension

Distress

Nervousness

Fear about the future

Front 259

Anxiety Disorder - Incidence

Back 259

Around 14.4% of Australians aged 16 - 85 have experienced an anxiety disorder. Females also experience more anxiety disorders as 32% of females admitted they had experienced an anxiety disorder whereas 20% of males did.

Front 260

Anxiety Disorder - Treatment

Back 260

CBT and other Behaviour Therapies

Anti Anxiety Medications

Front 261

Schizophrenia - What it is

Back 261

Is a psychotic mental disorder characterised by distorted perceptions, bizarre thoughts, disorganised speech, disturbed emotions and impaired functioning in everyday life.

Front 262

Types of Schizophrenia

Back 262

Residual

Paranoid

Catatonic

Undifferentiated

Disorganised

Front 263

Schizophrenia - Influence of Genetics

Back 263

Identical twins have a risk of about 50% of developing schizophrenia if one twin does. If one parent has schizophrenia, there is about a 12% chance of their children developing it aswell.

Front 264

Schizophrenia - Symptoms

Back 264

Distorted Perceptions

Bizarre Thoughts

Disorganised Speech

Disturbed Emotions

Front 265

Schizophrenia - Incidence

Back 265

People first experience symptoms at around 16 or 17.

Schizophrenia affects about 1% of the Australian population. It is experienced in males and females equally but the symptoms are usually earlier for males.

Front 266

Schizophrenia - Treatment

Back 266

Medication - Anti psychotics

Therapy - CBT

Social Support

Front 267

Autism - What it is

Back 267

Autism is a disorder characterised by extreme unresponsiveness to others, poor communication skills and highly repetitive, routine type behaviours.

Front 268

Autism - Symptoms

Back 268

Impaired Social Interaction

Impaired Communication

Restricted, repetitive behaviour

Impaired intellectual functioning

Front 269

Autism - Treatment

Back 269

Behaviour modification - Involves constantly rewarding the child whenever they behave in an appropriate way until they learn this way of behaving.

Front 270

Dementia - What it is

Back 270

Dementia is a general term for a group of illnesses or brain related diseases involving progressive deterioration of mental functioning.

Front 271

Dementia - Symptoms

Back 271

Become increasingly forgetful

Become suddenly disorientated

Disorganised Speech

Memory Loss

Front 272

Dementia - Treatment

Back 272

Medication

Cognitive Remediation

Front 273

Phobia - What is it

Back 273

A phobia is an excessive, persistent and unreasonable fear of a specific object, activity or situation.

Front 274

Phobia - Symptoms

Back 274

Dizziness

Breathlessness

Nausea

Fear of dying

Front 275

Phobia - Treatment

Back 275

Therapies such as flooding which includes prolonged exposure to the phobia that the person experiences which subsequently makes the person feel safer and comfortable to in relation to their phobia.

Front 276

Eating Disorder - What it is

Back 276

An eating disorder is a general term used to describe a mental disorder or illness involving a severe disturbance in eating behaviour.

Front 277

Eating Disorder - Types

Back 277

The two main types of Eating Disorders include

Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa

Anorexia Nervosa is an eating disorder that involves the persistent refusal to maintain body weight at or above a normal level, intense fear of weight gain, a distorted perception of body image and extreme concern with body shape and weight.

Bulimia Nervosa is characterised by binge eating episodes followed by compensatory behaviour.

Front 278

Eating Disorder - Treatment

Back 278

Loss of weight

Distorted Thinking

Loss of Menstruation

Medical Problems

Front 279

Three Main Functions of Nervous Systems

Back 279

- Receive Information

- Process Information

- Respond to Information

Front 280

Receptor Cells

Back 280

Specialised nerve cells located within sense organs such as the eyes, ears and the skin.

Front 281

Two Main Divisions of Nervous System

Back 281

- CNS (Central Nervous System)

- PNS (Peripheral Nervous System)

Front 282

How are the CNS and the PNS interrelated?

Back 282

The CNS processes, interprets and stores incoming info from the PNS. The PNS consists of all parts of the Nervous System other than the brain and spinal cord. The PNS carries informations to the CNS and back from the CNS to the parts of the body.

Front 283

Central Nervous System

Back 283

The CNS is the network of nerves and neurons that make up the brain and psinal cord. Its main role is to process information provided by the sensory systems and other parts of the body and to activate appropriate actions.

Front 284

Brain

Back 284

The brain is an intricate network of nerve tissues (clusters of neurons) that plays a vital role in processing information received through nerve pathways from the body and in directing actions within the body. Often called the master organ.

Front 285

Spinal Cord

Back 285

The Spinal Cord is a long column of nerve tissue that extends from the base of the brain and is encased in the spinal column. The spinal cord links the brain and the parts of the body below the neck.

Front 286

Two Main Functions of the CNS

Back 286

- To pass sensory information from the PNS to the brain

- To pass motor information from the brain to the PNS

Front 287

Spinal Reflex

Back 287

A spinal reflex is an automaticall occurring response to a stimulus without the info initally being processed by the brain. The nerves in the spinal cord initiate a response without the brain having to first.

Front 288

Peripheral Nervous System

Back 288

The peripheral nervous system is the entire network of nerves that transmits information to and from the CNS. The PNS includes all parts of the nervous system other than the brain and spinal cord.

Front 289

Two Divisions of the PNS

Back 289

- Somatic Nervous System

- Autonomic Nervous System

Front 290

Somatic Nervous System

Back 290

The SNS is a network of sensory nerves that carry information received at sensory receptor sites to the CNS and motor nerves that carry information from the CNS to the muscles that control movements of the body. Also called Skeletal Nervous System

Front 291

Autonomic Nervous System

Back 291

The ANS is a network of nerves that carries messages between the CNS and the heart, lungs and other internal organs and glands. The ANS regulates, or controls, the functioning of internal organs automatically.

Front 292

Two divisions of the ANS

Back 292

- Sympathetic Nervous System

- Parasympathetic Nervous System

Front 293

Sympathetic Nervous System

Back 293

The SNS arous the body when we experience and extreme emotion or feel threatened.

Front 294

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Back 294

The PSNS calms or restores the body to the normal state of functioning after an extreme threat has passed.

Front 295

Neuron

Back 295

A neuron is an individual nerve cell that transmits information within the body, combining it with information from other sources. Neurons have specialised functions, some neurons specialise in transmitting information from sense organs to the CNS. Other neruons do the opposite. Some neurons carry information between neurons.

Front 296

Number of Neurons in the Body

Back 296

Between 100 and 150 billion neurons.

Front 297

Soma

Back 297

The soma or cell body is the structure that determines whether the nueron will be activated and thus transmit messages to other neurons. Within the soma is the nucleus.

Front 298

Nucleus

Back 298

The nucleus contains biochemical information that provides the energy to keep the neuron functioning.

Front 299

Dendrite

Back 299

A dendrite is a short, thin nerve fibre that is specialised to detect and receive neural information. Like an antenna, dendrites receive incoming info from other neurons and transmit this to the soma.

Front 300

Axon

Back 300

An axon is a single, tubelike, fluid filled extnesion that transmits messages from the soma to the other cells in the body including other neurons, muscles and glands. Most neurons only have one axon.

Front 301

Axon Terminal

Back 301

At the end of each axon are branches called axon terminals. Each axon terminal has a small knob like swelling at the tip of it called a synaptic button. Axon terminals are located close to the dendrites of other neurons.

Front 302

Synaptic Button

Back 302

The synaptic button is a small structure like a sac that stores chemicals called neurotransmitters.

Front 303

Myelin Sheath

Back 303

The axons of many neurons are surrounded by a myelin sheath. The myelin sheath is a white, fatty covering that helps insulate the axon from axons of other neurons. Without it, interference may occur. However it is not a continious coating along the full length of the axon. It occures is segments that are seperated by small gaps called nodes. Neurons wrapped in myelin communicate their messages 20 times faster than unmyelinated neurons.

Front 304

Sensory Neurons

Back 304

Sensory neurons (afferent neurons) are specialised cells that receive information from both the external and internal environemtn. They transmit this info to the CNS. There are different types of sensory neurons, each of which only respond to a particluar type of stimulation.

Front 305

Motor Neurons

Back 305

Motor Neurons (efferent) transmit messages from the CNS to the muscles, glands and organs. They enable muscles to move, cause glands to secrete and actvate internal organs.

Front 306

Interneurons

Back 306

Interneurons provide neural links between sensory and motor neurons and have a specialised role of carrying and intergrating messages between sensory and motor neurons. Interneurons only exist in the CNS.

Front 307

Role of Interneurons

Back 307

When information arrives at the CNS, an interneuron receives, organises and intergrates the information.

Front 308

Neural Impulse (Nervous System)

Back 308

A neural impulse is a combination of electrical and chemical energy that contain the neural information which travels along the axon.

Front 309

How a Neuron sends information along the axon

Back 309

Information moves through the axon like a mexican wave. Sections open up, which then triggers the next one to open up and so on. Neurons are surrounded by a membrane, between the neuron and membrane there are ions which are either positively or negatively charged. This difference in the charges results in an electrical charge across the cell membrane.

Front 310

Resting Potential

Back 310

The difference in the electrical charge inside and outside the neuron.

Front 311

Threshold

Back 311

The minimum level of stimulation in order to be activate a neuron is called the neuron's threshold.

Front 312

Speed of Neural Impulses

Back 312

Fastest impulse can travel at 430km/h

Slowest travels at around 3.5km/h

Front 313

Synaptic Gaps

Back 313

The synaptic gap is a gap which seperates each neuron from another neuron.

Front 314

Synpase

Back 314

The synapse is the point of communication between neurons. The synpase includes the synaptic gap and a small area of the membrane of each of the connecting neurons.

Front 315

Neurotransmitter

Back 315

A neurotransmitter is a chemical substance thatis made by the neuron and enables communication between neurons. The neurotransmitter works by binding itself to the receptor site on the receiving neuron.

Front 316

Excitatory Effect

Back 316

One of the two effects a neurotransmitter will have on the neuron it has binded itself to. This effect consequently activates a neural impulse in another neuron.

Front 317

Inhibitory Effect

Back 317

The other affect a neurotransmitter will have on another neuron. The inhibitory effect blocks or prevents the receiving neuron from firing.

Front 318

Neuromodulators

Back 318

Neuromodulators are chemical substances that influence the activity of neurotransmitters. Instead of communicating information like a neurotransmitter, neuromodulators make neurons more or less receptive to a neuromodulator.

Front 319

Agonists (Neuromodulators)

Back 319

Agonists imitate and stimulate a neurotransmitters activity

Front 320

Antagonists (Neuromodulators)

Back 320

Antagonists block a neurotransmitters activity.

Front 321

Similarities of Neuromodulators and Neurotransmitters

Back 321

Neuromodulators and neurotransmitters can be simulataneously released from the same synaptic button. Certain neurotransmitters act as neurotransmitters in specific parts of the brain and neuromodulators in other parts of the brain.

Front 322

Differences of Neuromodulators and Neurotransmitters

Back 322

Neuromodulators' effects have a slow acting effect but continue for a substantial amount of time. Neuromodulators can also affect larger areas of neurons, well away from the point of release.

Front 323

Parkinson's Disease

Back 323

Parkinsons disease is a disorder in which neurons at the base of the brain degenerate and gradually cease to function normally. These neurons located in the substantia nigra (responsible for complex movements) produce the neurotransmitter called dopamine. In Parkinson's disease, the amount of dopamine is markedly reduced.

Front 324

How can too little of a neurotransmitter interfere with the Nervous System?

Back 324

Too little quantities of a specific neurotransmitter can cause problems. As the specific neurotransmitter isn't in adequate levels, the brain tries to overcome this and can deteriorate other parts of the body.

Front 325

How can too much of a neurotransmitter interfere with the Nervous System?

Back 325

When there is too much of a neurotransmitter present, it can become excitotoxic; overactive and overstimulating. When certain neurotransmitters are in excessive quantities, it can damage bodily structures and can cause nerve damage in the body.

Front 326

Three Main Approaches to Research (Nervous System)

Back 326

Psychological Intervention

Somatic Intervention

Correlation

Front 327

Somatic Intervention

Back 327

In somatic intervention, the researcher changes some aspect of the structure or function of the nervous system to see how this change affects behaviour and/or mental processes.

Front 328

ESB (Electrical Stimulation of the Brain)

Back 328

ESB involves using an electrode to electrically stimulate or inhibit the activity of one or more neurons in a part of the brain.

Front 329

Psychological Intervention

Back 329

In psychological intervention, the researcher interferes with or changes a behaviour or mental process of a person in some way and measures the resultant changes in the structure of function of the nervous system.

Front 330

Two Neuroimaging Techniques

Back 330

- Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

- Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Front 331

What PET and fMRI do?

Back 331

These scanners can detect, record and measure brain activity, and they also enable production of computer generated images for researchers to visually see what has been scanned.

Front 332

Electroencephalograph (EEG)

Back 332

EEG is an electronic device that detects, amplifies and records the electrical activity that spontaneously and 'naturally' occurs in the human brain.

Front 333

Correlation

Back 333

Correlation involves conducting a correlational study to find out the extent to which some aspect of the nervous system is 'co-related' or varies, with some behaviour or mental process.

Front 334

How a correlational study is different from an experiment?

Back 334

A correlational studdy does not establish a cause-effect relationship between variables of research interest.

Front 335

Attitude

Back 335

An attitude is an evaluation a person makes about an object, person, group, event or issue.

Front 336

Evaluation

Back 336

A judgement being made, either positive or negative, about some specific aspect of our lives and the world in which we live in.

Front 337

Requirements for a judgement (evaluation) to be called an attitude?

Back 337

The judgement or evaluation needs to be lasting and relatively consistent for it to be called an attitude.

Front 338

Tricomponent Model of Attitudes

Back 338

The tricomponent model proposes that any attitude has three related components - the affective, behavioural and cognitive components.

Front 339

Affective Component

Back 339

The affective component of an attitude refers to the emotional reactions or feelings an individual has towards an object, person, issue, event or group. E.g. "I hate country music"

Front 340

Behavioural Component

Back 340

The behavioural component of an attitude refers to the way in which an attitude is expressed through our actions (or how we might behave should the opportunity arise). E.g. Running to keep fit.

Front 341

Cognitive Component

Back 341

The cognitive component of an attitude refers to the beliefs we have about an object, person, group, event or issue. Our beliefs are linked to what we know about the world. E.g. Believing that god exists

Front 342

La Piere Research

Back 342

Over a two year period, La Piere travelled all over America with a chinese couple and stayed and dined in numerous hotels and restaurants. Unexpectedly, they were only denied service on one occasion and the service they received was 'good' in nearly 50% of the places they visited. Six months later, La Piere sent out a questionnaire to the manager of each restaurant and place they visited asking "Would you accept members of the chinese race as guests?" Out of the 50% which replied, only one response stated that they would accept chinese members. La Piere concluded that attitudes do not reliably predict and reflect behaviour.

Front 343

Criticisms of La Piere's Research

Back 343

La Piere's presence with the chinese couple may have influenced the behaviour shown towards them. While they received good face to face service, the employees who answered the questionnaire could have been different to the one's who served La Piere and the chinese couple.

Front 344

Strength of an Attitude

Back 344

The strength of an attitude is a factor that influences whether attitudes and behaviour will be consistent. A strong attitude is an attitude that is usually thought about, well known and easily accessible. The stronger the attitude, the more likely it is that it will be stable and consistent over time, be resistant to change, and influence behaviour.

Front 345

Accessibility of an Attitude

Back 345

The accessibility of an attitude is another factor that influences whether attitudes and behaviour will be consistent. An accessible attitude is a strong attitude that comes to mind easily, has been thought about, is well known and is stored in the memory for use.

Front 346

Social Context of an Attitude

Back 346

The social context of an attitude is another factor that influences whether attitudes and behaviour will be consistent. Whether an attitude leads to actual behaviour may be dependent on the social context in a person finds themselves. The social context may overpower the A and C components of an attitude that someone holds.

Front 347

Perceived Control over the behaviour

Back 347

This is another influence that determines whether attitudes and behaviour will be consistent. Perceived control is the belief an individual has that they are free to perform or not perform behaviour linked to an attitude and a belief that they can actually perform that behaviour.

Front 348

How Attitudes are formed

Back 348

Attitudes are formed, usually over a long period of time, through the process of learning. There are three different types of learning involving attitude formation - Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning and Modelling.

Front 349

Classical Conditioning

Back 349

Classical Conditioning is a form of learning which involves the repeated association of two different stimuli. It is the pairing and consequent association of two stimuli that is essential for the learning to occur.

Front 350

Operant Conditioning

Back 350

Operant Conditioning is a form of learning in which we tend to repeat behaviours that have desirable consequences and tend not to repeat behaviours that have an undesirable consequence.

Front 351

Reinforcement

Back 351

The principle of reinforcement is vital in operant conditioning. Reinforcement is any event that strengthens the response or increases the likelihood of it occurring again.

Front 352

Punishment

Back 352

Punishment can work in the same way as reinforcement but it is the reverse of it. If punishment follows the expression of some comment or action indicating a specific attitude, then it may weaken the attitude or suppress it.

Front 353

Modelling (Observational Learning)

Back 353

Modelling occurs when someone uses observation of another person's actions and their consequences to guide their future thoughts, feelings and behaviour. The person being observed is often referred to as the 'model'.

Front 354

The Primacy Effect

Back 354

The primacy effect is our initial evaluation of people is conducted really quickly, and the first impressions we develop tend to be the more lasting ones.

Front 355

Stereotyping

Back 355

The process of grouping, or 'fitting' people into a category based on what we know about them is called stereotyping. The people who stereotype, carry the belief that the people they are stereotyping all have the same characteristics.

Front 356

Stereotype

Back 356

A stereotype is a collection of beliefs that we have about the people who belong to a certain group, regardless of individual differences among members of that group.

Front 357

Advantage of Stereotyping

Back 357

Because it is not possible for us to intimately know everyone we meet, we use stereotypes to assist knowing how we should react to new people we meet.

Front 358

Disadvantages of Stereotyping

Back 358

A problem with stereotyping is that they can be inaccurate. Stereotypes are often based on incorrect or inadequate information. Another disadvantage of stereotyping is that it can lead to stigmatisation.

Front 359

Stigma

Back 359

A stigma is a negative label associated with disapproval or rejection by others who are not labelled in that way.

Front 360

Prejudice

Back 360

Prejudice is often defined as holding a negative attitude towards members of a group, based solely on their membership of that group.

Front 361

Four Characteristics of Prejudice to a Minority Group

Back 361

1. They tend to believe they are superior to the minority group

2. The majority group believe the minority group is different to them and they do not 'belong'

3. Majority group believe they are more powerful than the minority group

4. Majority group is insecure, fearing the minority group may become more powerful

Front 362

Old Fashioned Prejudice

Back 362

Old fashioned prejudice is a form of prejudice in which members of the majority group openly reject minority group members and their views towards the minority group are obvious and recognisable to others.

Front 363

Modern Prejudice

Back 363

Modern Prejudice is a form of prejudice which is much more subtle, hidden and expressed in ways more likely to be accepted by the majority group.

Front 364

Discrimination

Back 364

Discrimination refers to the positive or negative behaviour directed towards a social group and its members.

Front 365

Direct Discrimination

Back 365

Occurs when someone is treated unfairly and is disadvantaged because of a personal characteristic protected by the law.

Front 366

Indirect Discrimination

Back 366

Indirect Discrimination occurs when treating everybody the same way disadvantages someone because of a personal characteristic.

Front 367

Difference between discrimination and prejudice

Back 367

The basic difference between prejudice and discrimination is that prejudice is an attitude and discrimination is behaviour arising from prejudice.

Front 368

Racism

Back 368

Prejudice and discrimination directed against people who are part of a particular racial or ethnic group

Front 369

Sexism

Back 369

Prejudice and discrimination against men or women

Front 370

Ageism

Back 370

Prejudice and discrimination against people based on their age

Front 371

Ingroup

Back 371

Any group that you belong to or identify yourself with

Front 372

Outgroup

Back 372

Any group that you do not belong to or identify with

Front 373

Intergroup Conflict

Back 373

Intergroup conflict occurs when members of different groups compete to achieve or control something that is wanted by the members of each group.

Front 374

Intergroup Contact

Back 374

Intergroup Contact involves increasing direct contact between two groups who are prejudiced against each other. However research has shown contact between two groups will only reduce prejudice and discrimination under specific conditions.

Front 375

Sustained Contact

Back 375

Ongoing contact either directly or indirectly over a period time.

Front 376

Contact Hypothesis

Back 376

The contact hypothesis proposes that certain types of direct contact between members of different groups can reduce prejudice.

Front 377

Mutual Interdependence

Back 377

Involves two groups who are prejudiced and dislike each other, and when placed in a situation when they are dependent on each other.

Front 378

Superordinate Goal

Back 378

A superordinate goal is a goal that cannot be achieved by any one group alone and overrides any existing goals which each group might have.

Front 379

Equality of Status

Back 379

Refers to the importance of the group when compared with another group, as perceived by members of the group making the comparison.

Front 380

Cognitive Interventions

Back 380

Involves changing the way in which someone thinks about prejudice.

Front 381

Three Steps for a Congitive Intervention to be effective

Back 381

1. Individual must decide that their prejudiced attitude and behaviour is wrong.

2. They must hold fast to their non prejudiced beliefs.

3. Individuals must learn to block and suppress prejudical reactions and replace them with non prejudical ones.

Front 382

Observational Studies

Back 382

Observational studies are an indirect approach to measuring attitudes. This is because it involves watching what someone has done, then inferring the underlying attitudes.

Front 383

Advantages of Observational Studies

Back 383

It helps ensure participants that their attitudes are being measured as they are unaware of the observer. This means that their responses and behaviour aren't influenced by their knowledge.

It can also provide data about attitudes that might not be able to get from other methods. E.g. a person might state their attitude as something but their behaviour might not reflect it.

Front 384

Disadvantages of Observational Studies

Back 384

Does not give an accurate indication of a persons attitude as behaviour has been shown to not be consistent with one's attitude.

The difficulty with observing the strength of the attitude from just behaviour.

Front 385

Self Report

Back 385

A self report is the participant's written or spoken responses to questions, statements or instructions presented by the researcher.

Front 386

Survey

Back 386

A survey is a method of measuring attitudes that includes any technique requiring a participant to answer questions

Front 387

Questionnaire

Back 387

A questionnaire is a written set of questions designed to draw out self report information from people on a topic of research interest. Questionnaire's are often written out

Front 388

Interview

Back 388

An interview usually involves questions that are asked by the researcher with the aim of obtaining self-report information on a topic of research interest. Usually involves the questions being asked and answered orally.

Front 389

Structured Interview

Back 389

In a structured interview, the participant is asked specific, pre-determined questions in a controlled manner.

Front 390

Unstructured Interview

Back 390

In an unstructured interview, the researcher has an overall aim of what data should be collected but the questions asked can vary widely from participant to participant.

Front 391

Free Response Questions

Back 391

Free-response (or open-ended) questions require respondents to describe their attitudes ‘freely’ in their own words, thereby providing qualitative data. However the limitation of this is that it is often hard to summarise, analyse and interpret the data.

Front 392

Fixed Response Questions

Back 392

Fixed-response (or closed) questions usually provide a respondent with a number of ‘fixed’ alternative answers from which they are required to choose. This gives quantitative data rather than qualitative data.

Front 393

Rating Scales

Back 393

Rating scales are another self report method. Rating scales often provide a series of fixed response questions or statements to which the participants indicate their extent of agreement or disagreement. Rating scales provide the direction and strength of the attitudes.

Front 394

Likert Scale

Back 394

The Likert Scale is the most commonly used rating scale used in psychology. A likert scale focuses on measuring the direction of the attitude and generally consists of 20 questions to which participants respond to on a five point scale - Strongly disagree, disagree, neither disagree nor agree, agree, strongly agree.

Front 395

Advantages of using Attitude Measurement Devices

Back 395

Questionnaires and Rating Scales are simple to complete, easy to administer to a wide amount of people and are regarded as useful ways of gathering information.

Front 396

Disadvantages of using Attitude Measurement Devices

Back 396

A limitation of the Surveys and Rating Scales are that you need people to have good English skills and to understand the questions asked.

Sometimes the participants cannot remember clearly what they experienced or sometimes misunderstand the question asked.

Susceptible to social desirability.

Front 397

Social Desirability

Back 397

Involves people giving false or misleading information to create a favourable impression of themselves. This is so that they appear likeable or to look good.

Front 398

Social Influence

Back 398

The effects of the presence or actions of others, either real or imagined, on the way people think, feel and behave.

Front 399

Three Impacts of Social Influences

Back 399

Constructive - (Helpful)

Destructive - (Harmful)

Neutral - (Have no effect

Front 400

Group

Back 400

A group is any collection of two or more people who interact with and influence one another and who share a common purpose.

Front 401

Collective

Back 401

A collective (or aggregate) is a gathering of people who have minimal direct interaction.

Front 402

Status

Back 402

Status refers to the importance of an individual's position in the group, as perceived by the members of the group.

Front 403

Power

Back 403

Power refers to an individual's (or group's) ability to control or influence the thoughts, feelings and behaviours of another person (or group).

Front 404

Reward Power

Back 404

Ability to give positive consequences or remove negative consequences in response to specific behaviour

Front 405

Coercive Power

Back 405

Ability to give negative consequences or remove positive consequences in response to specific behaviour

Front 406

Legitimate power

Back 406

An individual’s status or position in a group, institution or society in general gives them the right (authority) to exercise power over those with a lower status or with less authority.

Front 407

Referent Power

Back 407

Individuals identify with or want to be like or liked by this person.

Front 408

Expert power

Back 408

Having special knowledge and skills that are desirable or needed

Front 409

Informational power

Back 409

Having resources or information that are useful and are not available elsewhere

Front 410

Role

Back 410

A role is the behaviour adopted by an individual or assigned to them that influences the way in which they function or act in different situations and life in general.

Front 411

Stanford Prison Experiment Background Info

Back 411

The Stanford Prison Experiment (SPE) was conducted in the summer of 1971 by American psychologist Philip Zimbardo at Stanford University in California.

Front 412

Hypothesis of SPE

Back 412

It can be hypothesised that 18 normal, well educated men would conform to their new assigned roles over a two week period and change their behaviour.

Front 413

Aim of Stanford Experiment

Back 413

To investigate how normal, healthy people would change their behaviour in order to conform to their roles of guard and prisoner in a simulated environment.

Front 414

Stanford Prison Experiment Sample and Way of Selection

Back 414

The SPE conveniently selected 24 male university students being paid $15 per day for two weeks. The actual experiment contained 18 people, 9 of them guards and 9 of them prisoners, chosen with a toss of a coin, with the rest of the sample being on stand by.

Front 415

IV and DV of Stanford Prison Experiment

Back 415

IV: The condition the participants are assigned to - Either a guard or a prisoner

DV: The resulting behaviour that comes as a result of either being a guard or a prisoner.

Front 416

Why was the SPE ended early?

Back 416

The SPE was ended early by Zimbardo as the guards had become genuinely brutal and vicious towards the prisoners and the prisoners were facing too much harm and distress.

Front 417

Results of the SPE

Back 417

After an uneventful first day, the second day bought on rebellious behaviour from the prisoners and guards started to assert their dominance over them by increasing their aggression. Four prisoners had to be released during the first four days due to hysterical crying and laughing, rage and symptoms of anxiety and depression.

Even out of the many citizens that came to visit the prison during the six days of the experiment, none of them acted in any way that tried to protect their prisoners' rights.

There was a substantial difference between the dominating, controlling, hostile behaviour of the guards and the passive-resistance behaviour of the prisoners.

Front 418

Criticisms of SPE

Back 418

The main criticism of the SPE is the fact that it was so unethical and by no means would it be allowed to be conducted in today's world. Another criticism of the SPE is that it had a relatively small sample size and that it didn't fully represent real life prisons in that even prisoners have certain rights that have to be met by the guards.

Front 419

Ethical Issues of the SPE

Back 419

Do No Harm, Withdrawal Rights, Professional Conduct, Informed Consent*

Front 420

Conclusion of the SPE

Back 420

The results of this experiment showed that the behaviour of normal, well-educated men can be significantly affected when a role they are given involves considerable power and status in the roles of being either a prison guard or inmate.

Front 421

How does Power and Status affected the mock guards and mock prisoners in the Zimbardo Prison Experiment?

Back 421

Having the role of guard carried great power and considerable status compared to the role of being a prisoner which carried very little amounts of power and next to no status.

Front 422

Obedience

Back 422

Obedience occurs when we follow the commands of someone with authority, or the rules or laws of our society.

Front 423

Compliance

Back 423

Compliance involves changing one's behaviour in a request to do so, it does not necessarily involve an authority figure.

Front 424

Milgram Experiment Background Info

Back 424

In a series of well-known and very controversial experiments, American psychologist Stanley Milgram (1963) investigated factors involved in determining obedience to an authority figure. In all, there were 19 variations of the experiment.

Front 425

Hypothesis of Milgram Experiment

Back 425

It can be hypothesised that if an individual is pressured by an authority figure to do something, they will do it, even if it is against their moral code.

Front 426

Aim of Milgram Experiment

Back 426

The aim of the Milgram Obedience experiment was to establish was interested in establishing how far someone would go in obeying an instruction if it involved harming another person.

Front 427

Milgram Experiment Sample and Way of Selection

Back 427

Milgram advertised for 40 male research participants between the ages of 20 and 50 offering to pay them $4. Participants were informed, however, that they were involved in a study on ‘the effects of punishment on learning’.

Front 428

IV and DV of Milgram Experiment

Back 428

IV: The different levels of shock instructed by the researcher to the teacher to be administered onto the learner.

DV: Whether or not the teacher actually administers the shock and the point at which they stop administering the voltages onto the learner.

Front 429

Results of the Milgram Experiment

Back 429

The results of the Milgram Experiment were unexpected, out of the 40 participants, none of them stopped before 300 volts and 65% of the participants continued to administer shocks at the fatal 450 volt level. 12.5% of the participants decided not to go on with the experiment at the 300 volt level where they learner started kicking the walls.

Front 430

Criticisms of Milgram Experiment

Back 430

One of the criticisms towards Milgram's obedience experiment was his sample consisted of only men.

Another criticism of Milgram's experiment was the breach of ethics in his study and by no way would the study be accepted by an ethics committee in today's world of research.

Front 431

Ethics of Milgram Experiment

Back 431

Do No Harm - Participants should not have any psychological or physical harm, in this study, some participants had emotional scarring that lasted for months after the experiment.

Deception - Involves deceiving the participant about the true nature of the study, Milgram told the participants they were involved in a study that explores 'the effects on punishment on learning'.

Withdrawal Rights - Participants should be allowed to withdraw at any time and must not be forced to stay in the study. Milgram's assistants insisted that the teacher go on with the study and to inflict pain on the learner.

Informed Consent - Participants weren't fully informed about the true nature of the study but this would have undoubtedly influenced the results.

Professional Conduct - An ethical principle was breached.

Front 432

Conclusion of the Milgram Experiment

Back 432

Ordinary people are likely to follow orders from an authority figures in terms of inflicting pain on other to an extent that can kill someone.

Front 433

Factors Affecting Obedience

Back 433

Social Proximity

Legitimacy of Authority Figures

Group Pressure

Front 434

Social Proximity (Obedience Factor)

Back 434

Generally, the social proximity refers to the physical closeness between two or more people. Milgram found that when the social proximity of the teacher applying the shock onto the learner was closer, the obedience rates declined.

When the teacher was in the same room with the learner and standing only 45–50 cm away, the number of fully obedient teachers dropped from 65% to 40%. And when the teacher was required to force the learner’s hand down into contact with a simulated ‘shock plate’, the number of fully obedient teachers dropped to 30%.

Milgram also found that when the teacher was out of the room and issued his or her orders by telephone, the number of fully obedient teachers dropped to about 20%

Front 435

Legitimacy of Authority Figures

Back 435

An individual is also more likely to be obedient when the authority figure is perceived as being legitimate and having power. As found in Milgram's experiments, when the experimenter in the lab coat left the room and was replaced by a fellow participant who ordered the shocks, 80% of the teachers refused.

Front 436

Group Pressure

Back 436

An individual is also more likely to be obedient where there is little or no group support for resisting the authority figure.

This works both ways, as shown in the Milgram experiment, when the teacher was placed with two confederate teachers who obeyed the authority, obedience of the teacher rose, when the confederated defied the authority, obedience in the participant declined as 90% of the participants also refused to give the shocks.

However when the teacher was exposed to the two confederate teachers obeying the authority, obedience of the participant rose from 65% to 72.5%

Front 437

Conformity

Back 437

Conformity is the tendency to adjust one’s thoughts, feelings or behaviour in ways that are in agreement with those of a particular individual or group, or with accepted standards about how a person should behave in certain situations (social norms).

Front 438

Asch Experiment Background Info

Back 438

Asch studied factors that he believed influenced conformity, such as group size and whether or not the group is unanimous (in complete agreement) on what should be said or done.

Front 439

Aim of Asch Experiment

Back 439

The aim of Asch's experiment was to investigate the extent to which social pressure from a majority group could affect a person to conform.

Front 440

Hypothesis

Back 440

The majority of the sample would not conform to the groups answers and would hold fast to their answers and wouldn't be pressured to answer the same way the rest of the group did.

Front 441

Asch Experiment Sample and Way of Selection

Back 441

Asch's experiment contained 50 university students, who were presumably selected conveniently, who were told they were taking part in a psychological experiment on visual judgement. In total there were 18 trials, each using different pairs of cards.

Front 442

IV and DV:

Back 442

IV: The two cards the experimenter shows (the card with the 'X' line and the other card that has the three lines 'A', 'B' and 'C'.

DV: The answer obtained by the participant and whether or not conformed to the rest of the groups answers.

Front 443

Results of the Asch Experiment

Back 443

- About 75% of the participants agreed with the confederates' incorrect response atleast once

- About 33% agreed with the incorrect responses given by the confederates in half or more of the trials

- However 24% did not conform to the incorrect responses given by the confederates'.

- All participants stated that they experienced some self doubt about their opinion.

Front 444

Criticism of Asch's Experiments

Back 444

One of the criticisms of the Asch experiment is the fact that it barely relates to real life in terms of that same or similar situation re appearing in real life.

His other criticism was that the experiment only involved young people and since young people are much more impressionable than elder people, the conformity rates might vary.

Front 445

Ethical Issues in Asch's Experiment

Back 445

The only small ethical issue associated with the Asch experiment is Do No Harm which probably wasn't really a big factor since participants don't usually face harm from answering questions differently from others.

Front 446

Conclusion of Asch's Experiment

Back 446

It can be concluded that a group exerts strong influence on an individual to conform, especially when the individual is in a minority of one.

Front 447

Factors that influence Conformity

Back 447

- Size of the Group

- Unanimity

- Informational Influence

- Normative Influence

- Culture

- Social Loafing

- Deindividuation

Front 448

Group Size (Conformity Factor)

Back 448

Group Size can often be a factor that influences conformity. Further studies from Asch shows that conformity increased with group size, but only upto a size of four. Beyond that, conformity did not continue to increase significantly. A group size of 15 actually produced a lower level of conformity compared to a group size of 3.

Front 449

Unanimity

Back 449

Unanimity refers to the complete agreement between members of a group. However when there was even one other member who disagreed with the majority, conformity reduced by about 80%. The presence of an ally who shares one’s view, or at least doesn’t accept the views of the majority, can be seen as providing social support that strengthens resistance to conformity.

Front 450

Informational Influence

Back 450

Informational influence occurs when conformity results from a need for direction and information on how to respond in a specific situation. In particular situations, we may be motivated by wanting to be ‘right’ and access to relevant information can influence us to conform.

Front 451

Normative Influence

Back 451

Normative influence to conform occurs when our response in a group situation is guided by one or more social norms. People are more likely to like us and accept us, and may even give us praise or approval when we conform.

Front 452

Culture

Back 452

As psychologists have found, there are differences in conformity when the Asch experiment was conducted in different countries around the world. The lowest level of conformity occured in individualist cultures whereas the highest level occured in conformity in collectivist cultures.

Front 453

Bond and Smith Research

Back 453

When British psychologists Rod Bond and Peter Smith (1996) examined the results of 133 of these ‘Asch-type’ experiments that have been conducted in 17 different countries, they found differences in conformity. conformity occurred less often in studies conducted in North America and Western Europe than in other parts of the world such as Africa, Fiji and Asia.

Front 454

Individualist Cultures

Back 454

In individualist cultures, being an individual and independent is valued and encouraged, and achieving personal goals is considered to be more important than achieving group goals. Furthermore, those who maintain independence and resist group pressure are viewed as strong-minded and regarded more positively than those who conform.

Front 455

Collectivist Cultures

Back 455

In collectivist cultures, achieving group goals is considered to be more important than the achievement of individual goals, and individuals are encouraged, and sometimes expected, to place group goals ahead of their personal goals. Consequently, conformity to incorrect answers given by a group of confederates in an Asch-type experiment would tend to be regarded as appropriate.

Front 456

Social Loafing

Back 456

Social loafing refers to the tendency of an individual to make less effort when involved in a group activity than when working alone. Generally, social loafers conform to their group, but with less effort. This is based on their belief that conforming (or not conforming) will not make much of a difference in what the group decides (or does), so they just go along with whatever the group agrees to do (or does).

Front 457

Deindividuation

Back 457

Deindividuation is the loss of individuality, or the sense of anonymity, that can occur in a group situation. Research studies have identified two important factors that bring about deindividuation which results in conformity to a group, these factors are Anonymity and Shift in Attention.

Front 458

Anonymity (Deindividuation - Conformity Factor)

Back 458

In groups, when people feel anonymous or ‘invisible’, and less accountable for their actions, they may choose to conform to a group which is behaving in ways they otherwise would not. Generally, the bigger the group, the greater the anonymity and the more likely it is that group members will use this anonymity to behave in ways they usually would not.

Front 459

Shift in Attention

Back 459

When individuals are with others in a group, their attention is often focused on the activities of the group and events in the environment (Shift in attention), rather than their own individual thoughts. Consequently, individuals in a group are less likely to reflect on the appropriateness of their actions, and will therefore give less thought to the consequences of their behaviour.

Front 460

Peer Group

Back 460

A peer group is usually made up of people who have similar interests, do the same sorts of things and often associate or interact with one another.

Front 461

Peer

Back 461

Refers to anyone who has one or more characteristics or roles in common with one or more other individuals, such as age, sex, occupation or social group membership.

Front 462

Friendship

Back 462

Friendship involves a positive relationship between two (or more) people who usually regard or treat each other in similar ways.

Front 463

Clique

Back 463

A relatively small group of friends of similar age, and generally of the same sex.

Front 464

Peer Pressure

Back 464

Peer pressure is social influence by peers; that is, real or imagined pressure to think, feel or behave according to standards, or ‘guidelines’ that are determined by peers. Usually in four categories:

- Social Activities

- Misconduct

- Conformity

- Family Issues

Front 465

Risk taking behaviour

Back 465

Risk-taking behaviour is behaviour that has potential negative consequences. Behaviour viewed as risk-taking has the potential to harm the individual’s psychological wellbeing and/or physical health in some way.

Front 466

Types of Risk Taking Behaviour

Back 466

- Thrill Seeking

- Reckless Behaviours

- Rebellious Behaviours

- Anti Social Behaviours

Front 467

Thrill Seeking Behaviour

Back 467

Thrill-seeking risks involve behaviours that are challenging but relatively socially acceptable.

Front 468

Reckless Behaviours

Back 468

Reckless behaviours, on the other hand, are often thrill-seeking but have a higher chance of not being accepted by the adult population, and have negative social or health-related outcomes.

Front 469

Rebellious Behaviours

Back 469

Rebellious behaviours involve experimenting with activities that are usually acceptable for adults but are generally disapproved of for adolescents.

Front 470

Anti Social Behaviours

Back 470

Anti-social behaviours are those which are considered unacceptable for both adults and adolescents. Examples of anti-social behaviours include cheating, overeating and bullying others.

Front 471

Cult

Back 471

A cult is a group which claims to have a great devotion to some person, idea or object. A cult usually has a religious basis and there is a living, charismatic and influential leader who is often seen as the ‘guiding spirit’ behind the religious beliefs and practices of the group.

Front 472

Sect

Back 472

A sect is a group that follows a particular set of principles, beliefs and practices and which has a separate identity within a larger group or organisation. A sect is generally a faction (breakaway group) within the larger group and is often not formally recognised by the larger group.

Front 473

Social Relationship

Back 473

Connection or association between two or more people, especially with regard to how they think, feel and behave towards each other.

Front 474

Social Behaviour

Back 474

Any behaviour where interaction occurs between two or more people.

Front 475

Pro Social Behaviour

Back 475

Any behaviour intended to help or benefit another person, group or society.

Front 476

Kitty Genovese Case

Back 476

Kitty was violently stabbed one early New York morning and while she tried to escape, the attacker caught her and stabbed her numerous times. Her pleas for help woke 38 neighbours however none came to her aid and only one called 911. They all watched as the attacker left Kitty to die on the footpath.

Front 477

Factors influencing Pro Social Behaviour

Back 477

- Situational Factors

- Social Norms

- Personal Factors

Front 478

Situational Factors (Pro Social Behaviour Influences)

Back 478

- Noticing the Situation

- Interpreting the Situation

- Taking responsibility

Front 479

Noticing the Situation (Situational Factor - Pro Social Behavior)

Back 479

You need to notice the situation in order to help. Clearly, if you don’t notice that there is a situation where help may be required you will not respond in an appropriate pro-social way. Research findings also indicate individuals are quicker to notice things when alone rather than when in a group.

Front 480

Interpreting the Situation (Situational Factor - Pro Social Behaviour)

Back 480

The less ambiguous the situation is, the more likely help will be offered. Conversely, the more ambiguous the situation, the less likely it is that help will be offered.

Front 481

Taking Responsibility for Helping (Situational Factor - Pro Social Behaviour Influences)

Back 481

Though you may notice and correctly interpret a situation as one in which help is required, you are unlikely to intervene and help unless you believe it is your responsibility to do so.

When someone else is nearby in an emergency situation, we may leave the responsibility to help to them, even if we don’t interpret them as having the responsibility to help.

Front 482

Latane and Dabbs Experiment - Coins dropped in Lift

Back 482

145 confederates ‘accidentally’ dropped coins or pencils while in a lift. In 1497 journeys in the lift, the confederates were helped 40% of the time when they were in the lift with only one other person and less than 20% of the time when there were six other passengers.

Front 483

Bystander Effect

Back 483

The bystander effect is is the tendency for individuals to be less likely to help another person in need when other bystanders are present, or believed to be present, as compared to when they are alone. Furthermore, the greater the number of bystanders, the less likely any one of them is to help.

Front 484

Social Norms Definition (Pro Social Behaviour Influences)

Back 484

Social norms are standards, or ‘rules’, that govern what people should or should not do in different social situations.

Front 485

Two Social Norms (Pro Social Behaviour Influences)

Back 485

Reciprocity Norm

Social Responsibility Norm

Front 486

Reciprocity Norm (Social Norms - Pro Social Behaviour Influences)

Back 486

The reciprocity norm prescribes that we should help others who help us. However, for a variety of reasons, some people are unable to reciprocate when they have been helped. For example, children, elderly people and disabled people are often unable to give as much help as they receive. In such cases, the social responsibility norm influences us to help.

Front 487

Social Responsibility Norm (Social Norms - Pro Social Behaviour Influences)

Back 487

The social responsibility norm prescribes that we should help those who need help because it is our responsibility or duty to do so.

Front 488

Personal Factors (Pro Social Behaviour Influences)

Back 488

Various personal factors can influence pro social helping behaviour.

Front 489

Three Personal Factors (Pro Social Behaviour Influences)

Back 489

- Empathy

- Mood

- Competence

Front 490

Empathy (Personal Factor - Pro Social Behaviour Influences)

Back 490

We are more likely to help someone in need of help if we feel empathy for them. Empathy is the ability to identify with and understand another person’s feelings or difficulties.

Front 491

Mood (Personal Factor - Pro Social Behaviour Influences)

Back 491

Generally, the results of research studies also indicate that a good mood increases helping, whereas a bad mood will sometimes increase and sometimes decrease helping behaviour.

Front 492

Competence (Personal Factor - Pro Social Behaviour Influences)

Back 492

Our actual or perceived ability to help can be influence whether or not we help in a specific situation, as well as the type of help we might offer.

Front 493

Altruism

Back 493

Altruism refers to pro-social behaviour focused on the wellbeing or benefit of others without any thought to personal gain or reward.

Front 494

Diffusion of Responsibility

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Diffusion of responsibility is the belief that, in a situation where help is required and others are present, one or more other people will or should take responsibility for helping.

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Audience Inhibition

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Not helping another person because of a fear of appearing foolish in the presence of others.

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Smoke Filled Room Experiment

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Latane and Darley used 60 male uni students and they were asked to fill in a questionnaire in a room that had a one way mirror attached. There were three experimental conditions.

- a participant was in the room alone

- one participant was in the room together with two confederates who had been instructed to not react when help was needed

- a group of three participants were in the room together and all three were ‘true’ participants.

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Results of Smoke Filled Room Experiment

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Of the participants who were alone in the room (condition 1), 50% left the room to report the smoke within two minutes and 75% had reported the smoke within 3½ minutes.

62% Participants in conditions 2 and 3 continued filling out the survey throughout the whole six minute period.

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Cost Benefit Analysis

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Involves an individual weighing up the personal and social costs of helping against the benefits of helping.

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Anti Social Behaviour

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Anti-social behaviour is any behaviour that is disruptive or harmful to the wellbeing or property of another person or to the functioning of a group or society

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Aggression

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Defined as any behaviour intended to cause physical or psychological harm to a person (including self), animal or object.

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Four Perspectives of Explaining Aggression

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1. psychodynamic perspective: aggression is an inner urge or ‘force’ that builds up within us until it needs to be released
2. ethological perspective: aggression is instinctive and has adaptive and survival functions
3. biological perspective: aggression has a biological basis and is therefore influenced by our genes, biochemistry, brain and nervous system
4. social learning perspective: aggression is a learned behaviour and most of the learning occurs through observing aggressive behaviour and copying what we see.

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Psychodynamic Perspective (Aggression)

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A theory developed by Freud, he believes the 'primitive' aggressive urge 'rages' inside of us and we are at a constant battle to keep it under control. He also proposes that we offload this urge by directing it into socially acceptable activities.

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Ethological Perspective (Aggression)

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Lorenz believe that aggression is a fighting instinct that is directed against members of the same specie. He also believed that this instinct has evolved over many generations to help animals adapt and survive.

Aggression promotes survival of a specie because it is used for:

- Defence of the young

- Balancing distribution of species across available environments

- Provide a structure for their society

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Biological Perspective (Aggression)

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The biological perspective proposes that there are important psychological factors that affect whether aggression will be shown. Influences can occur through genetics, through the brain and nervous system and biochemically (naturally or self ingested).

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Genetics (Biological Perspective - Aggression)

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Generally, psychologists believe that our genetic make-up may make us more likely to become or be an aggressive person, but environmental factors play a crucial role in determining whether or not we do in fact become an aggressive person or are pre-disposed to use aggressive behaviour.

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Neural Influences (Biological Perspective - Aggression)

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Researchers have identified several different parts of the brain involved in the production and control of aggressive behaviour. Scientists have found that when the amygdala and hypothalamus are electrically stimulated, aggressiveness increases.

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Biochemical Influences (Biological Perspective - Natural Influences - Aggression)

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In most species, males have been found to be more aggressive than females. An explanation for this is that males contain much more testosterone than man which has been found to be responsible for violent crimes.

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Biochemical Influences (Biological Perspective - Self Ingested Influences - Aggression)

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Research studies have consistently shown that other kinds of chemicals such as drugs, alcohol can also play a part in your aggression. Even with a little bit of alcohol, many people become disinhibited, which makes people have less control over their feelings and reactions.

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Social Learning Theory

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An explanation of how we learn aggressive behaviour through our interactions with others in the course of everyday life. They also explore the role of rewards and punishments in learning. The most commonly described type of learning is called observational learning or modelling.

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Observational Learning (Or Modelling)

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Observational learning involves learning by watching someone else’s behaviour and the consequences of their behaviour, and then modelling, or imitating, the behaviour.

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Model (Definition)

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The people who's behaviour we observe and imitate.

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Five Processes of Observational Learning - Aggression

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- Attention

- Retention

- Reproduction

- Motivation

- Reinforcement

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Attention (Observational Learning Step 1 - Aggression)

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For learning to take place, we must pay attention to or closely watch the model’s behaviour. We are more likely to imitate models who:

- Are perceived as positive, has a high status

- Model is familiar to observer

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Retention (Observational Learning Step 2 - Aggression)

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We need to be able to remember the model’s behaviour. There is a need to store the information in memory.

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Reproduction (Observational Learning Step 3 - Aggression)

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Following observation of a model’s behaviour, we need to have the ability to be able to reproduce, or imitate, the information that has been learned.

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Motivation (Observational Learning Step 4 - Aggression)

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The observer must also be motivated to perform the behaviour. Unless the behaviour provides some sort of incentive or reward, it is unlikely that they will want to learn it in the first place.

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Reinforcement (Observational Learning Step 5 - Aggression)

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Reinforcement influences the motivation to reproduce the observed behaviour and increases the likelihood of reproduction.

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Bandura Experiment (Bobo Dolls)

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Three groups of preschool children watched a movie of an aggressive adult model punching, hitting, kicking and verbally abusing a large inflatable doll named BoBo the clown. Each group saw a different version of the movie. Afterwards, children were placed in a room with the inflatable doll and other toys.

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Three Conditions of Bandura Experiment

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Group 1: the adult model’s aggressive behaviour was rewarded with lollies, soft drink and praise by another adult

Group 2: the adult model’s aggressive behaviour was punished with a spanking and by being told off by another adult

Group 3: there were no consequences for the adult model’s aggressive behaviour.

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Results of Bandura Experiment

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Children who watched the aggressive model either being reinforced or receiving no consequences imitated the model’s aggressive behaviour more than children who watched the model be punished.

When offered a reward as an incentive even those who saw the model being punished tended to imitate the model’s behaviour.

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Ethical Issues with Bandura Experiment

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- Voluntary Participation

- Informed Consent

- Withdrawal Rights

- Debriefing

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Bullying

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Aggressive behaviour that involves the inappropriate use of power by one or more persons over another less powerful person or group, and is generally repeated over time.