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263 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Psychology
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The scientific study of mind and behavior
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Mind
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Our private inner experience of perceptions, thoughts, memories, and feelings
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Behavior
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Observable actions of human beings and nonhuman animals
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Nativism
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The philosophical view that certain kinds of knowledge are innate or inborn
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Philosophical Empiricism
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The philosophical view that all knowledge is acquired through experience
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Phrenology
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A now defunct theory that specific mental abilities and characteristics, ranging from memory to the capacity for happiness, are localized in specific regions of the brain
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Physiology
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The study of biological processes, especially in the human body
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Stimulus
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Sensory input from the environment
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Reaction time
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The amount of time taken to respond to a specific stimulus
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Consciousness
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A person's subjective experience of the world and the mind
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Structuralism
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The analysis of the basic elements that constitute the mind
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Introspection
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The subjective observation of one's own experience
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Functionalism
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The study of the purpose mental processes serve in enabling people to adapt to their environment
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Natural Selection
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Charles Darwin's theory that the features of an organism that help it survive and reproduce are more likely than other features to be passed on to subsequent generations
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Illusions
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Errors or perception, memory, or judgment in which subjective experience differs from objective reality
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Gestalt Psychology
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A psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts
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Dissociative Identity Disorder
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A condition that involves the occurrence of two or more distinct identities within the same individual
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Hysteria
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A temporary loss of cognitive or motor functions, usually as a result of emotionally upsetting experiences
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Unconscious
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The part of the mind that operates outside of conscious awareness but influences conscious thoughts, feelings, and actions
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Psychoanalytic Theory
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Sigmund Freud's approach to understanding human behavior that emphasizes the importance of unconscious mental processes in shaping feelings, thoughts, and behaviors
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Psychoanalysis
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A therapeutic approach that focuses on bringing unconscious material into conscious awareness to better understand psychological disorders
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Humanistic Psychology
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An approach to understanding human nature that emphasizes the positive potential of human beings
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Behaviorism
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An approach that advocates the psychologists restrict themselves to the scientific study of objectively observable behavior
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Response
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An action or physiological change elicited by a stimulus
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Reinforcement
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The consequences of a behavior that determine whether it will be more likely that the behavior will occur again
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Cognitive Psychology
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The scientific study of mental processes, including perception, thought, memory, and reasoning
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Behavioral Neuroscience
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An approach to psychology that links psychological processes to activities in the nervous system and other bodily processes
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Cognitive Neuroscience
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A field that attempts to understand the links between cognitive processes and brain activity
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Evolutionary Psychology
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A psychological approach that explains mind and behavior in terms of the adaptive value of abilities that are preserved over time by natural selection
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Social Psychology
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A subfield of psychology that studies the causes and consequences of interpersonal behavior
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Cultural Psychology
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The study of how cultures reflect and shape the psychological processes of their members
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Empiricism
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Originally a Greek school of medicine that stressed the importance of observation, and now generally used to describe any attempt to acquire knowledge by observing objects or events
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Method
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A set of rules and techniques for observation that allow researchers to avoid the illusions, mistakes, and erroneous conclusions that simple observation can produce
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Operational Definition
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A description of an abstract property in terms of a concrete condition that can be measured
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Reliability
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The tendency for a measure to produce the same result whenever it is used to measure the same thing
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Power
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The tendency for a measure to produce different results when it is used to measure different things
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Case Method
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A method of gathering scientific knowledge by studying a single individual
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Population
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The complete collection of participants who might possibly be measured
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Sample
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The partial collection of people who actually were measured in a study
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Law of Large Numbers
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A statistical law stating that as sample size increases, the attributes of a sample will more closely reflect the attributes of the population from which it was drawn.
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Measure
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A device that can detect the measurable events to which an operational definition refers
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Electromyograph (EMG)
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A device that measures muscle contractions under the surface of a person's skin
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Validity
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The characteristic of an observation that allows one to draw accurate inferences from it
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Construct Validity
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The tendency for an operational definition and a property to have a clear conceptual relation
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Predictive Validity
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The tendency for an operational definition to be related to other operational definitions
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Frequency Distribution
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A graphical representation of the measurements of a sample that are arranged by the number of times each measurement was observed
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Normal Distribution
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A frequency distribution in which most measurements are concentrated around the mean and fall off toward the tails, and the two sides of the distribution are symmetrical
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Mode
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The "most frequent" measurement in a frequency distribution
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Mean
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The average of the measurements in a frequency distribution
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Median
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The "middle" measurement in a frequency distribution. Half the measurements in a frequency distribution are greater than or equal to the median and half are less than or equal to the median
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Range
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The numerical difference between the smallest and largest measurements in a frequency distribution
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Demand Characteristics
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Those aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think an observer wants or expects them to behave
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Naturalistic Characteristics
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A method of gathering scientific knowledge by unobtrusively observing people in their natural environments
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Double-blind
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An observation whose true purpose is hidden from the researcher as well as from the participant
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Variable
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A property whose value can vary or change
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Correlation
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The "co-relationship" or pattern of covariation between two variables, each of which has been measured several times
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Correlation Coefficient
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A statistical measure of the direction and strength of a correlation, which is signified by the letter r
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Natural Correlation
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A correlation observed between naturally occurring variables
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Third-variable Correlation
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The fact that two variables may be correlated only because they are both caused by a third variable
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Matched Samples
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An observational technique that involves matching the average of the participants in the experimental and control groups in order to eliminate the possibility that a third variable (and not the independent variable) caused changes in the dependent variable
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Matched Pairs
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An observational technique that involves matching each participant in the experimental group with a specific participant in the control group in order to eliminate the possibility that a third variable (and not the independent variable) caused changes in the dependent variable
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Third-variable problem
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The fact that the causal relationship between two variables cannot be inferred from the correlation between them because of the ever-present possibility of third-variable correlation
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Experiment
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A technique for establishing the causal relationship between variables
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Manipulation
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A characteristic of experimentation in which the researcher artificially creates a pattern of variation in an independent variable in order to determine its causal powers.
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Independent variable
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The variable that is manipulated in an experiment
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Experimental group
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One of the two groups of participants created by the manipulation of an independent variable in an experiment; the experimental group is exposed to the stimulus being studied and the control group is not
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Control Group
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One of the two groups of participants created by the manipulation of an independent variable in an experiment that is not exposed to the stimulus being studied
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Dependent variable
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The variable that is measured in a study
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Self-Selection
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The case in which a participant's inclusion in the experimental or control group is determined by the participant
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Randomization
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A procedure to ensure that a participant's inclusion in the experimental or control group is not determined by a third variable
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Internal validity
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The characteristic of an experimental that allows one to draw accurate inferences about the causal relationship between an independent and dependent variable
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External validity
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A characteristic of an experiment in which the independent and dependent variables are operationally defined in a normal, typical, or realistic way
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Theory
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A hypothetical account of how and why a phenomenon occurs, usually in the form of a statement about the causal relationship between two or more properties
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Hypothesis
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A specific and testable prediction that is usually derived from a theory
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Random Sampling
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A technique for choosing participants that ensures that every member of a population has an equal chance of being included in the sample
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Informed consent
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A written agreement to participate in a study made by a person who has been informed of all the risks that participation may entail
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Debriefing
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A verbal description of the true nature and purpose of a study that psychologists provide to people after they have participated in the study
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Neurons
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Cells in the nervous system that communicate with one another to perform information-processing tasks
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Cell Body
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The part of a neuron that coordinates information-processing tasks and keeps the cell alive
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Dendrites
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The part of a neuron that receives information from other neurons and relays it to the cell body
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Axon
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The part of a neuron that transmits information to other neurons, muscles, or glands
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Myelin Sheath
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An insulating layer of fatty material
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Glial Cells
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Support cells found in the nervous system
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Synapse
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The junction or region between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of another
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Sensory Neurons
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Neurons that receive information from the external world and convey this information to the brain via the spinal cord
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Motor Neurons
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Neurons that carry signals from the spinal cord to the muscles to produce movement
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Interneurons
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Neurons that connect sensory neurons, motor neurons, or other interneurons
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Resting potential
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The difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron's cell membrane
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Action potential
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An electric signal that is conducted along an axon to a synapse
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Refractory period
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The time following an action potential during which a new action potential cannot be initiated
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Terminal buttons
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Knoblike structures that branch out from an axon
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Neurotransmitters
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Chemicals that transmit information across the synapse to receiving neuron's dendrites
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Receptors
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Parts of the cell membrane that receive the neurotransmitter and initiate a new electric signal
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Acetylcholine (ACH)
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A neurotransmitter involved in a number of functions, including voluntary motor control
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Dopamine
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A neurotransmitter that regulates motor behavior, motivation, pleasure, and emotional arousal
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Glutamate
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A major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in information transmission throughout the brain
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GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid)
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The primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain
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Norepinephrine
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A neurotransmitter that influences mood and arousal
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Serotonin
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A neurotransmitter that is involved in the regulation of sleep and wakefulness, eating, and aggressive behavior
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Endorphins
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Chemicals that act within the pain pathways and emotion centers of the brain
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Agonists
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Drugs that increase that action of a neurotransmitter
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Antagonists
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Drugs that block the function of a neurotransmitter
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Nervous system
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An interacting network of neurons that conveys electrochemical information throughout the body
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Central nervous system (CNS)
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The part of the nervous system that connects the central nervous system to the body's organs and muscles
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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
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The part of the nervous stem that connects the central nervous stems to the body's organs and muscles
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Somatic nervous system
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A set of nerves that conveys information into and out of the central nervous system
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Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
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A set of nerves that carries involuntary and automatic commands that control blood vessels, body organs, and glands
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Sympathetic nervous system
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A set of nerves that prepares the body for action in threatening situations
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Parasympathetic nervous system
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A set of nerves that helps the body return to a normal resting state
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Spinal reflexes
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Simple pathways in the nervous system that rapidly generate muscle contractions
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Hindbrain
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An area of the brain that coordinates information coming into and out of the spinal cord
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Medulla
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An extension of the spinal cord into the skull that coordinates heart rate, circulation, and respiration
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Reticular Formation
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A brain structure that regulates sleep, wakefulness, and levels of arousal
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Cerebellum
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A large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills
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Pons
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A brain structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain
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Tectum
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A part of the midbrain that orients an organism in the environment
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Tegmentum
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A part of the midbrain that is involved in movement and arousal
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Cerebral cortex
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The outermost layer of the brain, visible to the naked eye and divided into two hemispheres
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Subcortical structures
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Areas of the forebrain housed under the cerebral cortex near the very center of the brain
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Thalamus
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A subcortical structure that relays and filters information from the senses and transmits the information to the cerebral cortex
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Hypothalamus
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A subcortical structure that regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior
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Pituitary gland
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The "master gland" of the body's hormone-producing system, which releases hormones that direct the functions of many other glands in the body
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Limbic system
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A group of forebrain structures including the hypothalamus, the amgydala, and the hippocampus, which are involved in motivation, emotion, learning, and memory
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Hippocampus
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A structure critical for creating new memories and integrating them into a network of knowledge so that they can be stored indefinitely in other parts of the cerebral cortex
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Amygdala
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A part of the limbic system that plays a central role in many emotional processes, particularly the formation of emotional memories
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Basal ganglia
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A set of subcortical structures that directs intentional movements
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Corpus callosum
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A thick band of nerve fibers that connects large areas of the cerebral cortex on each side of the brain and supports communication of information across the hemispheres
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Occipital lobe
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A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information
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Parietal lobe
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A region of the cerebral cortex whose functions include processing information about touch
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Temporal lobe
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A region of the cerebal cortex responsible for hearing and language
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Frontal lobe
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A region of the cerebral cortex that has specialized areas for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgment
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Association areas
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Areas of the cerebral cortex that are composed of neurons that help provide sense and meaning to information registered in the cortex
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Gene
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The unit of hereditary transmission
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Chromosomes
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Strands of DNA wound around each other in a double-helix configuration
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Heritability
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A measure of the variability of behavioral traits among individuals that can be accounted for by genetic factors
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Electroencephalogram (EEG)
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A device used to record electrical activity in the brain
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Synesthesia
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The perceptual experience of one sense that is evoked by another sense
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Sensation
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Simple awareness due to the stimulation of a sense organ
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Perception
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The organization, identification, and interpretation of a sensation in order to form a mental representation
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Transduction
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What takes place when many sensors in the body convert physical signals from the environment into neural signals sent to the central nervous system
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Psychophysics
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Methods that measure the strength of a stimulus and the observer's sensitivity to that stimulus
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Absolute threshold
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The minimal intensity needed to just barely detect a stimulus
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Just noticeable difference (JND)
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The minimal change in a stimulus that can just barely be detected
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Weber's Law
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The just noticeable difference of a stimulus is a constant proportion despite variations in intensity
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Signal detection theory
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An observation that the response to a stimulus depends both on a person's sensitivity to the stimulus in the presence of noise and on a person's response criterion
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Sensory adaptation
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Sensitivity to prolonged stimulation tends to decline over time as an organism adapts to current conditions
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Visual acuity
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The ability to see fine detail
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Retina
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Light-sensitive tissue lining the back of the eyeball
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Accommodation
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The process by which the eye maintains a clear image on the retina
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Cones
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Photoreceptors that detect color, operate under normal daylight conditions, and allow us to focus on fine detail
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Rods
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Photoreceptors that become active only under low-light conditions for night vision
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Fovea
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An area of the retina where vision is the clearest and there are no rods at all
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Blind spot
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An area of the retina that contains neither rods nor cones and therefore has no mechanism to sense light
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Receptive field
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The region of the sensory surface that, when stimulated, causes a change in the firing rate of that neuron
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Trichromatic color representation
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The pattern of responding across the three types of cones that provides a unique code for each color
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Color-opponent system
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Pairs of visual neurons that work in opposition
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Area V1
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The part of the occipital lobe that contains the primary visual cortex
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Visual-form agnosia
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The inability to recognize objects by sight
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Perceptual constancy
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A perceptual principle stating that even as aspects of sensory signals change, perception remains consistent
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Template
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A mental representation that can be directly compared to a viewed shape in the retinal image
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Monocular depth cues
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Aspects of a scene that yield information about depth when viewed with only one eye
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Binocular disparity
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The difference in the retinal images of the two eyes that provides information about depth
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Motion parallax
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A depth cue based on the movement of the head over time
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Apparent motion
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The perception of movement as a result of alternating signals appearing in rapid succession in different locations
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Pitch
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How high or low a sound is
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Loudness
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A sound's intensity
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Timbre
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A listener's experience of sound quality or resonance
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Cochlea
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A fluid-filled tube that is the organ of auditory transduction
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Basilar membrane
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A structure in the inner ear that undulates when vibrations from the ossicles reach the cochlear fluid
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Hair cells
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Specialized auditory receptor neurons embedded in the basilar membrane
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Area A1
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A portion of the temporal lobe that contains the primary auditory cortex
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Place code
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The cochlea encodes different frequencies at different locations along the basilar membrane
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Temporal code
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The cochlea registers low frequencies via the firing rate of action potentials entering the auditory nerve
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Haptic perception
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The active exploration of the environment by touching and grasping objects with our hands
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Referred pain
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Feeling of pain when sensory information from internal and external areas coverage on the same nerve cells in the spinal cord
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Gate-contral theory
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A theory of pain perception based on the idea that signals arriving from pain receptors in the body can be stopped, or gated, by interneurons in the spinal cord via feedback from two directions
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Vestibular system
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The three fluidfilled semicircular canals and adjacent organs located next to the cochlea in each inner ear
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Olfactory receptor neurons (ORNS)
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Receptor cells that initiate the sense of smell
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Olfactory bulb
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A brain structure located above the nasal cavity beneath the frontal lobes
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Pheromones
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Biochemical odorants emitted by other members of their species that can affect an animal's behavior or physiology
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Taste buds
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The organ of taste transduction
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Developmental psychology
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The study of continuity and change across the life span
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Zygote
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A single cell that contains chromosomes from both a sperm and an egg
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Germinal stage
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The 2-week period of prenatal development that begins at conception
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Embryonic stage
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The period of prenatal development that lasts from the second week until about the eighth week
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Fetal stage
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The period of prenatal development that lasts from the ninth week until birth
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Myelination
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The formation of a fatty sheath around the axons of a brain cell
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Teratogens
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Agents that damage the process of development, such as drugs and viruses
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Fetal alcohol syndrome
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A developmental disorder that stems from heavy alcohol use by the mother during pregnancy
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Infancy
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The stage of development that begins at birth and last between 18 and 24 months
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Motor development
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The emergence of the ability to execute physical action
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Reflexes
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Specific patterns of motor response that are triggered by specific patterns of sensory stimulation
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Cephalocaudal rule
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The "top-to-bottom" rule that describes the tendency for motor skills to emerge in sequence from the head to the feet
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Proximodistal rule
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The "inside-to-outside" rule that describes the tendency for motor skills to emerge in sequence from the center to the periphery
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Cognitive development
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The emergence of the ability to understand the world
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Sensorimotor stage
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A stage of development that begins at birth and lasts through infancy in which infants acquire information about the world by sensing it and moving around within it
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Schemas
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Theories about or models of the way the world looks
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Assimilation
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The process by which infants apply their schemas in novel situations
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Accommodation
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The process by which infants revise their schemas in light of new information
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Object permanence
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The idea that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible
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Childhood
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The stage of development that begins at about 18 to 24 months and lasts until adolescence
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Preoperational stage
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The stage of development that begins at about 2 years and ends at about 6 years, in which children have a preliminary understanding of the physical world
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Concrete operational stage
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The stage of development that begins at about 6 years and ends at about 11 years, in which children acquire a basic understanding of the physical world and a preliminary understanding of their own and others' minds
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Conservation
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The notion that the quantitative properties of an object are invariant despite changes in the object's appearance
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Formal operational stage
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The stage of development that begins around the age of 11 and lasts through adulthood, in which children gain a deeper understanding of their own and others' minds and learn to reason abstractly
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Egocentrism
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The failure to understand that the world appears differently to different observers
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Theory of Mind
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The idea that human behavior is guided by mental representation, which gives rise to the realization that the world is not always the way it looks and that different people see it differently
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Attachment
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The emotional bond that forms between newborns and their primary caregivers
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Strange situation
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A behavioral test developed by Mary Ainsworth that is used to determine a child's attachment style
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Internal working model of attachment
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A set of expectations about how the primary caregiver will respond when the child feels insecure
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Temperaments
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Characteristic patterns of emotional reactivity
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Preconventional stage
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A stage of moral development in which the morality of an action is primarily determined by its consequences for the actor
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Conventional stage
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A stage of moral development in which the morality of an action is primarily determined by the extent to which it conforms to social rules
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Postconventional stage
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A stage of moral development at which the morality of an action is determined by a set of general principles that reflect core values
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Adolescence
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The period of development that begins with the onset of sexual maturity (about 11-14 years of age and lasts until the beginning of adulthood (about 18 to 21 years of age)
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Puberty
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The bodily changes associated with sexual maturity
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Primary sex characteristics
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Bodily structures that are directly involved in reproduction
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Secondary sex characteristics
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Bodily structures that change dramatically with sexual maturity but that are not directly involved in reproduction
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Adulthood
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The stage of development that begins around 18 to 21 years and ends at death
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Personality
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An individual's characteristic style of behaving, thinking, and feeling
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Self-report
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A series of answers to a questionnaire that asks people to indicate the extent to which sets of statements or adjectives accurately describe their own behavior or mental stage
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Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI)
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A well-researched, clinical questionnarie used to assess personality and psychological problems
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Projective techniques
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A standard series of ambiguous stimuli designed to elicit unique responses that reveal inner aspects of an individual's personality
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Rorschach inkblot test
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A projective personality test in which individual interpretations of the meaning of a set of unstructured inkblots are analyzed to identify a respondent's inner feelings and interpret his or her personality structure
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Thematic apperception test (TAT)
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A projective personality test in which respondents reveal underlying motives, concerns, and the way they see the social world through the stories they make up about ambiguous pictures of people
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Trait
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A relatively stable disposition to behave in a particular and consistent way
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Big five
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The traits of the five-factor model: conscientriousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness to experience, and extraversion
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Psychodynamic approach
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An approach that regards personality as formed by needs, strivings, and desires, largely operating outside of awareness-motives that can also produce emotional disorders
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Dynamic unconscious
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An active system encompassing a lifetime of hidden memories, the person's deepest instincts and desires, and the person's inner struggle to control these forces
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Id
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The part of the mind containing the drives present at birth; it is the source of our bodily needs, wants, desires, and impulses, particularly our sexual and aggressive drives
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Pleasure principle
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The psychic force that motivates the tendency to seek immediate gratification of any impulse
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Ego
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The component of personality, developed through contact with the external world, that enables us to deal with life's practical demands
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Reality principle
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The regulating mechanism that enables the individual to delay gratifying immediate needs and function effectively in the real world
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Superego
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The mental system that reflects the internalization of cultural rules, mainly learned as parents exercise their authority
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Defense mechanism
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Unconscious coping mechanisms that reduce anxiety generated by threats from unacceptable impulses
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Rationalization
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A defense mechanism that involves supplying a reasonable-sounding explanation for unacceptable feelings and behavior to conceal (mostly from oneself) one's underlying motives or feelings
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Reaction formation
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A defense mechanism that involves unconsciously replacing threatening inner wishes and fantasies with an exaggerated version of their opposite
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Projection
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A defense mechanism that involves attributing one's own threatening feelings, motives, or impulses to another person or group
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Regression
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A defense mechanism in which the ego deals with internal conflict and perceived threat by reverting to an immature behavior or earlier stage of development
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Displacement
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A defense mechanism that involves shifting unacceptable wishes or drives to a neutral or less-threatening alternative
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Identification
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A defense mechanism that helps deal with feelings of threat and anxiety by enabling us unconsciously to take on the characteristics of another person who seems more powerful or better able to cope
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Sublimation
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A defense mechanism that involves channeling unacceptable sexual or aggressive drives into socially acceptable and culturally enhancing activities
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Psychosexual stages
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Distinct early life stages through which personality is formed as children experience sexual pleasures from specific body areas and caregivers redirect or interfere with those pleasures
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Fixation
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A phenomenon in which a person's pleasure-seeking drives become psychologically suck, or arrested, at a particular psychosexual stage
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Oral stage
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The first psychosexual stage, in which experience centers on the pleasures and frustrations associated with the mouth, sucking, and being fed
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Anal stage
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The second psychosexual stage, which is dominated by the pleasures and frustrations associated with the anus, retention and expulsion of feces and urine, and toilet training
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Phallic stage
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The third psychosexual stage, during which experience is dominated by the pleasure, conflict, and frustration associated with the phallic-genital region as well as powerful incestuous feelings of love, hate, jealousy, and conflict
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Oedipus conflict
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A developmentaln experience in which a child's conflicting feelings toward the opposite-sex parent is (usually) resolved by identifying with the same-sex parent
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Latency stage
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The fourth psychosexual stage, in which the primary focus is on the further development of intellectual, creative, interpersonal, and athletic skills
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Genital stage
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The final psychosexual stage, a time for the coming together of the mature adult personality with a capacity to love, work, and relate to others in a mutually satisfying and reciprocal manner
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Self-actualizing tendency
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The human motive toward realizing our inner potential
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Unconditional positive regard
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An attitude of nonjudgmental acceptance toward another person
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Existential approach
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A school of thought that regards personality as governed by an individual's ongoing choices and decisions in the context of the realities of life and death
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Social cognitive approach
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An approach that views personality in terms of how to person thinks about the situations encountered in daily life and behaves in response to them
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Person-situation controversy
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The question of whether behavior is caused more by personality or by situational factors
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Personal constructs
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Dimensions people use in making sense of their experiences
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Outcome expectancies
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A person's assumptions about the likely consequences of a future behavior
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Locus of control
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A person's tendency to perceive the control of rewards as internal to the self or external in the environment
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Self-concept
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A person's explicit knowledge of his or her own behaviors, traits, and other personal characteristics
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Self-verification
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The tendency to seek evidence to confirm the self-concept
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Self-esteem
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The extent to which an individual likes, values, and accepts the self
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Self-serving bias
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People's tendency to take credit for their successes but downplay responsibility for their failures
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Narcissism
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A trait that reflects a grandiose view of the self combined with a tendency to seek admiration from and exploit others
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