Psychology Midterm

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John Stewart Mill

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(1800's) Argued that psychology should be a science of observation and of experiment.

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Wilhelm Wundt

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Established the first psychology laboratory in 1879. Used introspection.

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Introspection

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A systematic examination of subjective mental experiences that requires people to inspect and report on the content of their thoughts.

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Edward Titchener

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Founded Structuralism

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Structuralism

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States that conscious experience can be broken down into its basic underlying components.

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William James

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Argued that the mind consisted of a stream of consciousness that could not be frozen in time, broken down or analyzed. Founded Functionalism.

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Functionalism

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Psychologists ought to examine the functions served by the mind. The mind helps humans adapt to environmental demands.

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Charles Darwin

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Proposed Evolutionary Theory, the history of a species in terms of the inherited, adaptive value of physical characteristics, of mental activity and of behavior.

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Max Wertheimer

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Founded the Gestalt school of thought (1912).

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Gestalt Theory

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the whole of conscious experience is different from the sum of its parts, emphasized patterns and context in learning.

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Sigmund Freud

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Founded Psychoanalysis and the notion of the unconscious

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John B. Watson

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Founded Behaviorism

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Behaviorism

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The idea that psychology should be less concerned with the conscious or unconscious, but rather an individual's behavior.

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B. F. Skinner

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Believed that behavior is shaped by the consequences that follow.

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George A. Miller

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Launched the Cognitive Revolution (1957)

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Cognitive Psychology

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The scientific study of mind and mental function

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Cognitive Neuroscience

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a field that studies the neural mechanisms that underlie thought, learning and memory

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Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow

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Pioneered a humanistic approach to the treatment of psychological disorders

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Social Psychology

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Uses an experimental approach to test the psychology of large groups of people

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Psychological Therapy

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Drugs and Effective treatments of psychological disorders

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Brain Chemistry

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Hundreds of chemicals that interact in the brain that play critical roles in mental activity and behavior.

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The Human Genome

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A basic genetic code or blueprint for the human body

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Cultural Neuroscience

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studies the ways that cultural variables affect the brain, mind, genes and behavior

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The 4 Levels of Psychological Analysis

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Biological: Brain systems, neurochemistry

Individual: One's differences in perception, cognition and behavior

Social: Interpersonal behavior, social cognition

Cultural: Thoughts, actions, behaviors in different societies and cultural groups

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Population

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everyone in the group the experimenter is interested in

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Sample

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a subset of the population that you test, representative of the population

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Observational Studies

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Involve observing and classifying behavior.

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Naturalistic Observation

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Observation of people without their knowledge in their natural environment

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Participant Observation

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Observation of people who volunteer their time to be studied

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Case Studies

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Intensive examination of unusual people or organizations

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Reactivity

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The presence of the observer alters the behavior of those being observed

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Hawthorne Effect

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The boss being present while workers are working, makes the workers work harder.

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Observer Bias

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systematic error in observation that occur because of an observer's expectations

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Experimenter expectancy effect

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the way that you treat your subjects changes how they act because of your expectancy of the data

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Socially Desirable responding/faking good

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the participant responds in a way that is most socially acceptable

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Better than average effect

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People tend to describe themselves in positive ways that aren't necessarily true

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Correlational Studies

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Examine how variables are naturally related in the real world. Dependent and Independent variables, could have positive, negative or no correlation. Correlation does not imply causation.

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Directionality problem

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Researchers find a relationship between two variables but cannot determine which variable may have caused changes in another variable.

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Third Variable Problem

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Researchers cannot be confident in an unmeasured variable isn't the actual cause of the differences in the variables of interest.

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Experimental Studies

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Research manipulates one variable to examine its effect on a second variable.

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Independent Variable

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Variable that is manipulated by the experimenter

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Dependent Variable

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Variable that is affected by or related to the independent variable

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Experimental Group

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Treatment group that receive the intervention

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Control Group

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Treatment group that doesn't receive intervention

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Confound

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Anything other than the independent variable that affects the dependent variable.

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Random Sampling

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every person in the population has an equal chance of being selected

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Selection Bias

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When groups are not equivalent because participants in different groups differ in unexpected ways that affect the dependent variable.

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Institutional Review Boards (IRB's)

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Review all proposed research to ensure that it meets scientific and ethical standards

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Informed Consent

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Participants have the right to know what will happen to them and must be given all the relevant information about the study

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Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment

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(1934-1972) A study on the natural progression of untreated syphilis in rural African American men who thought they were receiving free healthcare. Failure of ethics.

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Construct Validity, External Validity, Internal Validity

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Do the variables measure what they're supposed to? Can the findings be generalized outside the lab? Are the effects due to the experimental manipulations?

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Random Error

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amount of error introduced to each measurement differs each time

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Systematic error

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amount of error introduced into each measurement is constant

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Mean, Median, Mode

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Arithmetic average of a set of numbers. The value in a set of numbers that falls halfway between the highest and lowest number. The most frequent value in a set of numbers.

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Standard Deviation

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How far away each value is on average from the mean

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Range

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The width from the highest to the lowest value

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Correlation coefficient

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a statistical value between -1.0 and +1.0 that shows correlation

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The nervous system

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responsible for everything we think feel and do

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Basic components of the nervous system

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Neurons, Central Nervous system (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous system (PNS)

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Sensory (afferent) Neuron

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detect information from the physical world and pass that information along to the brain

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Motor (efferent) Neurons

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direct muscles to contract or relax

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Interneurons

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Communicate within local or short distance circuits; can do either job but do it locally

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Dendrite

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detects chemical signals from neighboring neurons (small branches)

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cell body

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collects and integrates information in the neuron

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Axon

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transmits electrical impulses in the neuron

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Myelin Sheath

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encases and insulates axons

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Node of Ranvier

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spaces between glial cells, allows for speedy transfer

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Terminal Buttons

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bulbous end of an axon

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Synapse

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supports chemical communication between neurons

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Synaptic cleft

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narrow gap between the terminal buttons and the dendrite of a neighboring neuron

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Reception (neurons)

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The phase where chemical signals are received from neighboring neurons

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Integration (neurons)

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The phase where incoming signals are assessed

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Transmission (neurons)

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The phase where signals are passed on to other receiving neurons

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Resting membrane potential

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the ratio of negative to positive ions is greater inside the neuron than the outside

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Polarized (neurons)

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when a neuron has more negative ions inside it than outside. All neurons start this way

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Polarization

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the condition of being polarized which creates the electrical energy necessary to power a neuron.

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Inhibitory Signals

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these hyperpolarize the cell, decreasing the likelihood that the neuron will fire

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Chemical Communication

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Action potentials cause precynaptic neurons to release chemicals called neurotransmitters from terminal buttons

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Reuptake

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Neurotransmitter is reabsorbed into the presynaptic terminal buttons

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Enzyme Deactivation

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Enzyme destroys the neurotransmitter

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Autoreceptors

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signal the presynaptic receptors to stop accepting the neurons

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Agonists

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drugs that enhance the actions of neurostransmitters (i.e. cocaine/heroin)

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Antagonists

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drugs that inhibit the actions of the neurotransmitters (i.e. botox)

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Acetylcholine (ACH)

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neurotransmitter responsible for motor control at the junctions between nerves and muscles by binding with the receptors to contract or relax muscles

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Epinephrine (adrenaline)

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neurotransmitter that regulates arousal, the adrenaline rush that prepares the body of dealing with threats

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Norepinephrine

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regulates arousal and alertness, especially important for vigilance

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Serotonin

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Neurotransmitter that regulates feelings, important for emotional states, impulse control and dreaming

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Dopamine

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Neurotransmitter that motivates behavior, communicates which activities may be rewarding, involved in motor control and planning

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GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid)

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Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter of the nervous system.

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Glutamate

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Primary excitory neurotransmitter of the nervous system. Aids in learning and memory.

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Endorphines

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Neurotransmitter involved in natural pain reduction and reward.

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The Spinal Cord

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Part of the brain that regulates the coordination of reflexes. Carries sensory information from the brain and motor signals away from the brain (afferent and efferent neurons)

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Brain Stem

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Upper tip of the spinal cord. Houses the nerves that control the most basic functions of survivial (i.e. heart rate, breathing, swallowing, vomiting etc.)

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Cerebellum (little brain)

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Part of the brain responsible for proper motor function, learning, and motor memory.

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Forebrain

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part of the brain that consists of two cerebral hemispheres, right and left.

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Subcortical structures

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Parts of the brain that lie below the cerebral cortex: hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and basal ganglia

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Hypothalamus

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the brain's master regulatory structure: regulates body temperature, body rhythms, blood pressure, and blood glucose

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Thalamus

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Gateway to the cerebral cortex. Except smell, regulates all incoming sensory information, organizes it and relays it to the cortex.

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Hippocampus

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part of the brain that plays an important role in the storage of new memories. Grows larger with increased use.

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Amygdala

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part of the brain that serves a vital role in our learning to associate things in the world with negative and positive emotional responses

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Basal Ganglia

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part of the brain crucial for planning and producing movement

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Cerebral Cortex

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the outer layer of the cerebral hemispheres. The site of all thoughts, detailed perceptions and complex behaviors.

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Corpus Callosum

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a bridge of axons connecting the hemispheres of your brain to each other.

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Occipital lobe

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lobe at the very back of the head and devoted almost exclusively to vision.

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Parietal lobe

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lobe located in front of the occipital and behind the frontal lobes. Devoted partially to touch. The left hemisphere gets touch information from the right side of the body and vice versa

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Temporal lobe

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lobe located below the parietal lobes and in front of the occipital lobe. important for processing auditory information

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Frontal lobe

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the front lobe. responsible largely for voluntary movement

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Prefrontal Cortex

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brain region particularly concerned with social phenomena.

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Somatic nervous system (SNS)

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transmits sensory signals to/from the central nervous system

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Automatic nervous system (ANS)

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regulated the body's internal environment

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Sympathetic division (ANS)

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prepares the body for action (fight or flight)

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Parasympathetic division (ANS)

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returns the body to its normal resting state

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The endocrine system

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communication network the influences thoughts, behaviors, and actions, using hormones instead of electrochemical signals

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Hormones

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chemical substances released into the bloodstream by endocrine glands, such as the pancreas, thyroid and testes or ovaries

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Platicity

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a property of the brain that allows it to change as a result of experience, drugs or injury.

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Critical periods

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time periods within which particular experiences must occur for development in the brain to proceed normally

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Neurogenesis

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New neurons are produced in some brain regions (i.e. the hippocampus to form new memories)

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Radical Hemispherectomy

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after the surgical removal of an entire cerebral hemisphere, the remaining hemisphere eventually takes on the roles of the missing one

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Human Development Project

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mapped the entire structure of the human DNA

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Chromosomes

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made of deoxyribonunleic acid consisting of 2 intertwined strands of molecules in a double helix shape

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Genotype

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An organism's genetic makeup: never changes

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Phenotype

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An organism's observable physical characteristics: always changing

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Behavioral Genetics

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the study of how genes and environment interact to influence psychological activity

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Twin Studies

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Study that compares similarities between monozygotic twins and dizygotic twins to determine the genetic basis of specific traits

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Dizygotic (fraternal)

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two sperm fertilize two eggs which becomes two zygotes

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Monozygotic (identical)

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one sperm fertilizes one egg and splits the zygote in two

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Adoption studies

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studies that compare biological relatives and adoptive relatives

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Sensation

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Our sensory organs' detection and response to external stimulus energy and the transmission of those responses to the brain

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Perception

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the brain's processing of detected signals, resulting in internal representations of the stimuli that form a conscious experience of the world

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Sensory Coding

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sensory receptors translate the physical properties of stimuli into patterns of neural impulses

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Transduction

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A process by which sensory receptors produce neural impulses for the brain

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Gustation

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the sense of taste, main job is to keep poisons out of our system

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Taste buds

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sensory organs, mostly on the tongue, come in the form of tiny, mushroom shaped structures

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Olfaction

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the sense of smell

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Process of Olfaction

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-Odorants pass into the nose and nasal cavity

-Contact a thin layer of tissue embedded in receptors called the olfactory epithelium

-smell receptors transmit the information to the olfactory build

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Haptic Sense

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the sense of touch

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Audition

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the sense of sound

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sound wave

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change in pressure that travels through air

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Cornea

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the outside protective layer of the eye

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Iris

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the colored portion of the eye

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Pupil

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Black part of the eye

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Retina

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In the eye; consists of rods and cones. Rods respond at extremely low levels of illumination and are responsible for night vision. Cones are less sensitive, responsible primarily for vision under high illumination and for seeing color and detail.

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Trichromatic theory

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activity in three different types of cones that are sensitive to different wavelengths

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Opponent process theory

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different types of vision cells, working in opposing pairs, create the perception that red/green, black/blue

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Bottom-Up processing

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data are relayed in the brain from lower to higher levels of processing

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Top-down processing

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Information at higher levels of mental processing can influence lower, "earlier" levels in the processing hierarchy

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Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization

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a series of laws explaining how our brains group the perceived features of a visual scene into organized wholes

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Principle of Proximity

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the closer two objects are, the more we see them as grouped

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Principle of similarity

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we tend to group figures according to how closely they resemble each other

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Good Continuation

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being able to continue an object even when it is disconnected

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Closure

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the tendency to complete figures that have missing gaps

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illusory contours

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seeing negative space where we fill in those gaps because of a shape missing

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Binocular Depth cues

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available from both eyes and contribute to bottom up processing

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Binocular disparity

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this cue is based by the distance between a human's two eyes

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Stereoscopic vision

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the ability to determine an object's depth based on eyes

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Convergence

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when eye muscles turn the eyes inward, the brain knows how much the eyes are converging and uses this information to perceive distance

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Monocular depth cues

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available from each eye alone and provide organization information

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Occlusion (Pictorial depth cue)

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a near object occludes or blocks an object further away

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Relative size (pictorial depth cue)

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Far off object projects a smaller retinal image than close objects do, if the far off and close objects are the same physical size

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Familiar size (pictorial depth cue)

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we know how large a familiar object is so we can tell how far away it is by the size of its retinal image

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Linear Perspective (pictorial depth cue)

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seemingly parallel lines appear to converge in the distance

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Texture Gradient (pictorial depth cue)

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as a uniformly textured surface recedes, its texture continuously becomes denser

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Position relative to horizon (pictorial depth cue)

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objects below the horizon that appear higher int he visual field are perceived as being farther away and vice versa