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76 Cards in this Set
- Front
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how do we define "abnormal"?
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abnormal may be defined as dysfunctional behavior or thought processes. abnormal behavior deviates from societal norms. this type of behavior may put others or he self in danger of emotional or physical harm. depending on the frequency of the behavior, it may be detemines as normal or abnormal. most importantly, the context i which the behavior occured must be taken into accoun. for exaple, it may seem abnomal for someone to wash their hands 20 times a day, however, if said person works with toxic materials, it may simply be a preventative measure from poisoning one's self. "a behavior can be problematic or not prooblematic depending on the environment in which it occurs (Beidal et al.)
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purpose, strength/weaknesses of DSM
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DSM strengths:
consistency of diagnoses insurance issues DSM weaknesses: how do we decide if something is a disorder? i.e. homosexuality was in DSM-IV until 1973 when it was voted out. disorder based on democratic vote? does it pathologize eveyday poblems? ADHD used to be rambunctious kid. does it include too many behaviors? lots of socio-cultural political arguments about it. |
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know main diagnostic categories and symptoms:
Phobia |
type of anxiety disorder
diagnosis: an irrational, overwhelming, persistent fear of a particular object or situation. simple phobia: centered on a particular object or event (snakes, heights, spiders, etc.) social phobia: fear of focused scrutiny by others/fear of humiliation/embarrassment when does a fear become a phobia? persistent fear out of proportion to reality of danger recognition that fear is unreasonable compelling desire to avoid situation/constriction of life may result in alcohol abuse common social phobic dears: speaking in public eating/drinking in public bashful bladder speaking on the phone encounters with authority or opposite sex |
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know main diagnostic categories and symptoms:
PTSD |
type of anxiety disorder
symptoms: may develop as a result of exposure to a traumatic event, oppressive situation, natural or unnatural disasters consists of the following: flashbacks constricted ability to feel emotions (deadening/numb) excessive arousal difficulties with memory and concentration feelings of apprehension impulsive outburst |
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know main diagnostic categories and symptoms:
Panic Disorder |
type of anxiety disorder
symptoms: recurrent sudden onsets of intense terror/apprehension that often occur without warning and are unrelated to specific danger/object often linked to a specific danger/object with or without agoraphobia (fear of public places/inability to escape or find hep if one is incapacitated fear of fear: agoraphobia as fear of having panic attack in public places |
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know main diagnostic categories and symptoms:
OCD |
type of anxiety disorder
symptoms: persistent anxiety-provoking thoughts and/or ways to perform repetitive, ritualistic behaviors to prevent or produce a situation obsessions: repetitive thoughts, images, or impulses that invade consciousness and cannot be controlled compulsions: repetitive, stereotypes, unwanted actions that are difficult to resist most common obsession/compulsions: dirt, contamination, violence, orderliness checking, cleaning, counting |
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know main diagnostic categories and symptoms:
Depression |
major depressive disorder
symptoms: major depressive episode and depressed characteristics for at least two weeks defined by the presence of 5 out of 9 symptoms depressed mood throughout day reduced interest/pleasure in activities weight/appetite changes psychomotor agitation/retardation? fatigue feeling worthless/guilty in inappropriate manner problems in thinking, concentration, making decisions trouble sleeping or sleeping too much recurrent thoughts of death/suicide |
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know main diagnostic categories and symptoms:
Bipolar |
mood disorder
diagnosis and symptoms: extreme mood swings b/w depression and manic episodes manic episodes must last 1 week episodes usually separates by 6 months |
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know main diagnostic categories and symptoms:
Schizophrenia |
characterized by highly disordered thought processes
"split-mind"=individual's mind is split from reality delusions (false beliefs (not otherwise accepted in the culture)) such as: delusions of cotroll (think they're being controlled by outside forced, like he mystic rays of the sun, or thinking they are controlling others delusions of persecution (government, companies, etc. out to get you) delusions of reference (believe everything's directed at them, i.e. every time a newscaster ruffles hr paper she's sending them a signal) hallucinations: sensory experiences in the absence of real stimuli (hearing voices) usually voices are very insulting, negative confused sens of self and identity boundaries disturbance of language: "word salad" throw together words, say it like it's a sentence, but it's not (bloodworm hamburger balitmore) detached relationship with world flat affect (deadening of emotions) and/or inappropriate emotions disrupted volition: lack of goal-directed activity types of schizophrenia: disorganized: person has delusion/hallucinations with no meaning catatonic: person shows bizarre motor behavior |
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absolute thresholds
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the absolute threshold is a theory that belongs to the detection category of psychophysics. when one reaches their absolute threshold of stimulus detection, one has reached the point i which they are 50% certain of whether or not one detected a stimulus. any stimulus above their threshold is detectable, any threshold below their threshold is undetectable. can or cannot detect a stimulus
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difference thresholds
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the difference threshold is a theory that belongs to the detection category of psychophysics. when one reaches their difference threshold, one is not able to detect the difference between two stimuli. one cannot tell which stimulus is stronger. for example, one may not be able to tell the difference between 100 pounds and 105 pounds. as weight increases, difficulty to discriminate between varying weights increases. the difference between 6 and 11 pounds may be noticed simply because the weight' weight is being doubles. however, in the case of 100 vs. 105 pounds, the weight was only slightly increased
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Fechner's law
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fechner was interested in establishing the relationship between changes in the physical domain and changes in subjective sensation. he developed "classical" psychophysical methods as tools in order to investigate this issue. through three methods, fechner formulated the first psychophysical "law" which was?
one method was based on the adjustment of stimuli. the observer has control over the intensity of the provided stimulus. the participant is instructed to intensify the stimulus until it becomes detectable, and vice versa. for example, participant would turn a knob until they detected a tone. another method fechner used was the method of limits. in this method, the experimenter had control ove the stimulus. the exerpimenter would ask the participant if he/she could detect the stimulus. for every time the participant responded negatively, the experimenter would increase the intensity of the stimulus. if the participant was about to detect the stimulus, the experimenter would weaken the intensity of the stimulus until the participant could no longer detect it. it woud look something like this: yes yes yes no. no no no yes. by using the method of limits, fechner was able to ascertain what the participant's absolute threshold was. The method of constant stimuli was the third method used by Fechner. In this method, the experimenter has control over the stimuli. The stimuli was presented to the participant in a random order. This method was used to measure participant’s accuracy to detect stimuli. For example, if you know the tone is going to get lower, you’re going to try to listen for the tone more. In the method of constant stimuli, the participant is clueless to the order in which the stimuli are presented. Point of subjective equality, jnd. |
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Biological constraints on learning
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-> (XAN) Blue/sour water experiment: Quails and rats were given water that was both blue and sour. Both the quails and rats then became sick (the experimenters put... something in the water to make them sick). THEN the quails and rats were given the choice to drink EITHER blue or sour water. The quails avoided the blue water, and the rats avoided the sour water. This is because birds associate food with what it looks like and rats associate food w/ what it tastes like. Contrast this example with conditioning -> you were not able to condition the quails to avoid sour water and vice versa.
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Schacter’s seven sins of memory source:
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Transience--the decreasing accessibility of memory over time. While a degree of this is normal with aging, decay of or damage to the hippocampus and temporal lobe can cause extreme forms of it. Schacter cited as a somewhat facetious example former President Bill Clinton's "convenient lapses of memory" during the Monica Lewinsky investigation. Clinton claimed in the hearings that he sometimes couldn't remember what had happened the previous week.
Absent-mindedness--lapses of attention and forgetting to do things. This sin operates both when a memory is formed (the encoding stage) and when a memory is accessed (the retrieval stage). Examples, said Schacter, are forgetting where you put your keys or glasses. He noted a particularly famous instance in which cellist Yo-Yo Ma forgot to retrieve his $2.5 million cello from the trunk of a New York City cab. Blocking--temporary inaccessibility of stored information, such as tip-of-the-tongue syndrome. Schacter recounted the embarrassment of John Prescott, British deputy prime minister, when a reporter asked him how the government was paying for the expensive Millennium Dome. Prescott struggled to find the word "lottery," trying "raffles" instead. Suggestibility--incorporation of misinformation into memory due to leading questions, deception and other causes. Bias--retrospective distortions produced by current knowledge and beliefs. Psychologist Michael Ross, PhD, and others have shown that present knowledge, beliefs and feelings skew our memory for past events, said Schacter. For example, research indicates that people currently displeased with a romantic relationship tend to have a disproportionately negative take on past states of the relationship. Persistence--unwanted recollections that people can't forget, such as the unrelenting, intrusive memories of post-traumatic stress disorder. An example, said Schacter, is the case of Donnie Moore of the California Angels, who threw the pitch that lost his team the 1986 American League Championship against the Boston Red Sox. Moore fixated on the bad play, said Schacter, "became a tragic prisoner of memory," and eventually committed suicide. Misattribution--attribution of memories to incorrect sources or believing that you have seen or heard something you haven't. Prominent researchers in this area include Henry L. Roediger III, PhD, and Kathleen McDermott, PhD. An illustration of it, said Schacter, is the rental shop mechanic who thought that an accomplice, known as "John Doe No. 2," had worked with Timothy McVeigh in the Oklahoma City bombing; he thought he'd seen the two of them together in his shop. In fact, the mechanic had encountered John Doe No. 2 alone on a different day. |
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Node of Ranvier
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(XAN) On the axon of the neuron, the node of ranvier is the spaces between the myelin sheath. Where the myelin sheath is, ions (K+ and Na+) are not able to flow through the ion channels in the membrane of the cell - which weakens the action potential. The nodes of ranvier allow ions to continue to flow in and out of the neuron as the action potential travels down the axon. This jumping of action potential from node to node is called saltatory conduction. (Think salt like the Na+ and Cl- ions to help remember the term).
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Fundamental attribution error
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Tend to think that a person’s behavior is based on their personality rather than the social situation.
First, we overestimate how much people’s behavior is based on personality and underestimate how much people’s behavior is based on the situation. We do this to others, not ourselves Example: You’re walking behind someone to LBC. They open the door but don’t keep it open for you. You think to yourself, “What a jerk. I bet he’s a Biology major or something. They’re so full of themselves.” The next day, you are running to the doors of LBC and only hold the door open for yourself when there were people behind you. You think “I’m late to class!” |
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Self-fulfilling prophecy
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1. Forming an expectancy
a. Category based (stereotypes) b. Personal experiences, first impressions c. Implicit personality theories i. Ideas about what types of traits often emerge together |
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Schemas vs. Heuristics
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Schemas= mental models people use to organize their knowledge
• One common type of automatic thinking • Influence information people o Notice o Think about o Remember o We are more likely to remember things when they are in keeping with our schemas • Schemas are functional and beneficial o Help us interpret ambiguous situations • Schemas that are applied to a situation can affect construals o May be several possible schemas for any given situation o Schemas influenced by accessibility o Accessibility- extent to which a schema is at the forefront of our minds (two types) Chronic accessibility: always present (if you experience it all the time then it might come up more) Priming: when recent experiences increase the accessibility of a schema, trait, or concept • Heuristics: Rely on mental shortcuts when making decisions o Often very useful, can lead to errors in judgment o Increases cognitive efficiency o Schemas also increase cognitive efficiency, however, heuristics minimizes the actual controlled thinking so we can make a split-second decision • Availability heuristic o People make decisions based on how easily they can bring something to mind o Example: more likely to die in a car accident or stroke? Stroke o ING, N? o Schwartz et a. (1991) People asked to think of either 6 times there were assertive or 12 times, then rate assertiveness Easier to come up with 6, those people rather themselves more assertive • Things that are "available" in our minds are considered more common o Vivid things (e.g. plane crashes) are more available o Things that are more publicized are most available o MAY NOT BE MORE COMMON • Representativeness heuristic: People make decisions based on how similar something is to typical case o Often ignore base rate information: how common something is in the environment or population • Errors based on representativeness o Ignoring base rate information and simply matching to stereotypes about people of schemas |
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Attribution Theory
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How we explain other people's behavior
Make two types of attributions Internal: it is something about the person whose behavior we are explaining Why did Susie stomp on my foot? Because she's mean. External: it is something about other people or the situation Why did Susie stomp on my foot? Because we were standing on a crowded train. It was an accident. Kelly's Covariation Model 1. Look at the characteristics of a particular behavior at a particular time 2. Compare it with what you know about previous examples 3. Make either internal or external attribution When we compare this situation to related situations, what we do is that we use three different types of information 1. Consensus: how does the actor's behavior toward a stimulus compare to other people's behavior toward a stimulus? a. If Susie steps on my foot, does everyone step on my foot? 1. Distinctiveness: how does this actor's behavior toward a stimulus compare to this actor's behavior toward other stimuli? a. Does Susie step on everybody's foot? 1. Consistency: is the actor's behavior toward that stimulus always the same? a. Whenever we're in the same place, does she on my foot? Why did Joe kick Fido (dog)? • Consensus: do other people also kick Fido? o Yes=high consensus, No=low consensus • Distinctiveness: does Joe kick other dogs? o Yes=low distinctiveness, No=high distinctiveness • Consistency: does Joe always kick Fido? o Yes=high consistency, No=low consistency • Internal attribution- it's something about Joe! o Low consensus (no one else kicks Fido) o Low distinctiveness (Joe kicks all dogs) o High consistency (Joe always kicks Fido) • External attribution- it's something about Fido! o High consensus- everyone kicks Fido o High distinctiveness- Joe kicks only Fido o High consistency- Joe always kicks Fido • Low consistency o Unique occurrence is difficult to classify o External attribution made to the particular circumstances A situational attribution- accident, lack of attentiveness When we can't do all of this, we make fundamental attribution errors. |
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Cultural differences in self-perception
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• Cultural difference in self-concept
• Western cultures= independent view of the self o Define self via own thoughts, feelings, actions • Eastern cultures= interdependent view of the self o Define self via relationships with others and others' (or group's) thoughts, feelings, actions i.e. a member of my family, part of this group • Generalized differences, much within culture variability |
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Intrinsic/extrinsic motivation and how they are affected by rewards
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• Two motivations for engaging in behaviors
o Intrinsic motivation= desire to do a behavior because we like it, find it interesting etc. o Extrinsic motivation= desire to do a behavior because of external rewards or pressures o Adding extrinsic motivation for something that was intrinsically motived can be negative-> over-justification effect If people view behavior as extrinsically motivated Then underestimate intrinsic motivation as a cause of behavior |
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Cognitive dissonance
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• Original definition: a drive or feeling of discomfort, caused by holding two or more inconsistent cognitions
• We went to be cognitively consistent. We want our thoughts to match and make sense when bringing it together with everything else • If our thoughts, or cognitions, don't match, then we are motivated to remove the discomfort |
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Aronson's revision to dissonance
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• Dissonance caused by performing an action that is discrepant from one's (typically positive) self-concept
• Example: it is important to live a healthy lifestyle. You put this thought with the behavior of smoking. Smoking is in contrast with that lifestyle. Creates discomfort so make a change. • Three ways of doing this (reducing discomfort) o Change your behavior Bring your behavior in line with your thoughts i.e. stop smoking o Change your cognitions Bring your cognitions in line with your behaviors i.e. important to live a healthy lifestyle, but since I smoke light cigarettes that's ok o Add new cognition Think of new things that support your behavior i.e. healthy lifestyle, smoker, the reality is that my life will be shorter but I'm ok with that (I don't want to live to be old) |
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What are some possible behavioral outcomes of cognitive dissonance?
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• Choice justification (Brehm, 1956)
o Dissonance occurs after an important decision between two similar things o i.e. rate products on scale (toaster oven and coffee maker) o Women rated the items functionally identical (both save time etc.) o Now, as a gift, choose an appliance o After choosing, rerate appliances o The women rated the appliance they chose better o Reduce dissonance by enhancing what you chose and devaluing what you didn't choose o Happens POST-decision • Justification of effort (Aronson & Mills, 1959) o Increasing the liking for something you have worked hard to get People must feel like they had a choice over their behavior i.e. female college students getting into a discussion group. The women who worked harder to get into the group said they liked it better than the other group (boring though) |
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how can cognitive dissonance be reduced?
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• Insufficient justification (Festinger & Carlsmith) 1959
o Threats to self-esteem o Illusion of choice o Low external justification= high dissonance o High external justification= low dissonance • Real world occurrence- school desegregation in the 1960s o In NC, desegregation went more smoothly than everywhere else o No difference in the families, however, white parents were given a choice to send their kids to public schools or private schools. In order to do that, they had to fill out complicated paperwork o It must not be that bad, we'll move forward • Insufficient punishment (Aronson & Carlsmith) o Mild threat of punishment= high dissonance o Severe threat of punishment= low dissonance o Researchers went into 1st 2nd grade classroom o Brought in new toys, rated the toys o Then the research said either: Mild, leave the room, don't play with the toys or I'll be sad Severe, leave the room, don't play with the toys or I'll take them away forever Rerate toys, sad=lower, severe=higher o If we're given a large reward or severe punishment, it leads to external justification for whatever it is we're doing Leads to external justification Leads to LOW dissonance Leads to temporary change in attitude of behavior o Small reward or mild punishment Leads to internal justification HIGH dissonance Long-lasting change in attitude or behavior |
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Cognitive, affective, behavioral
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• Cognitive (beliefs)
o Beliefs about the properties of the "attitude object" (anything we're dealing with, animal, person, couch) o Function as object appraisal Thing that helps me= good Things that hurts me= bad • Affective (emotion) o Feelings and values associated with the "attitude object" o Affectively based attitudes function as "value-expressive" Thing that makes me happy/is cool= good Thing that makes me sad/is gross= bad o Can be the result of sensory reaction or conditioning Classical conditioning: neutral object paired with something that evokes a response Eventually, neutral object takes on the same emotional response (drool) i.e. loves popcorn, doesn't like movies, but gets same feeling after pairing popcorn with movie o Operant conditioning Reinforcement and punishment are used to increase or decrease behavior Made a cake once, best cake EVAR, make it more frequently • Behavioral o Observe our behavior toward the "attitude object" o Behaviorally based attitudes emerge when attitude is weak or ambiguous We have no (or minimal) cognitive or affective attitude No external reason for our behavior See self-perception theory (ch5) • Can experience one without the other |
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Implicit vs. explicit
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Explicit attitudes
Controllable, reportable, conscious Influence controlled behaviors i.e. verbal Usually measured by survey or verbal response Implicit attitudes Uncontrollable, un-reportable, unconscious Influence uncontrollable behaviors i.e. nonverbal Usually measured by response latency Study to measure racial attitude Participants responded to explicit and implicit measures E: survey, "I would feel comfortable if a black family moved into my neighborhood" I: quickness response latency to white +good, white +bad, black +good, black + bad Black confederate told to have conversation with participant Video camera, only see participant Naïve observers coded their verbal and nonverbal behaviors Advertising Average American exposed to 300-400 ads per day Goal is to change your attitude toward a product TV ads often focus on affective attitudes Easier to manipulate People do not have to pay as much attention |
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Normative and informational social influence
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Normative
Conformity to be liked and accepted by others i.e. fashion (want to dress fashionably, fit in) Aspects of NSI Public compliance (we do it) NOT private acceptance (we do NOT believe it) More likely No allies Allies make it easier to resist conformity Only 6% conformed at east once when there was an ally in the Asch study Collectivistic culture or beliefs Conformity more likely when it is valued Informational Conformity via using others as a source of information Their behavior, their knowledge, etc. i.e. see what others are using to eat their salad (which fork) Two important components: Public compliance We do it Private acceptance We believe it |
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Conformity/obedience and the famous studies (Asch line-judging
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Which of the three lines on the right is the same length as the line of the left?
Pretty obvious 1 participant, 5 confederates Most of the time give the right answer, but sometimes give the most obviously wrong answer 76% of people conformed at least 1 time Replicated nearly 50 years later Why did they conform Public compliance without private acceptance With private reporting, no conformity |
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Conformity/obedience and the famous studies Milgram shock study
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o “Goal” of study was to look at learning
o One participant, one confederate. Study was rigged so that participant was always teacher and confederate was always learner o Experimenter hooked confederate up to electric shock machine o Participant was told to teach confederate words to memoire. If the confederate messed up, participant was supposed to shock confederate as punishment o Shock was increased in small intervals o Confederate would complain that he has a heart condition and wants to stop experiment. Experimenter assures participant that the shocks aren’t lethal and that the experiment must continue o Over half of participants went over 350 volts? check numbers o Showed easy obedience to authority o This study was done in response to Nuremberg trials (Nazis said they did what they were told to do) |
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Conformity/obedience and the famous studies Zimbardo prison study
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o Zimbardo interested in how roles effect changes in obedience
o Had students who were psychologically healthy and normal put into the role of either prison guard or prisoner o Turned Stanford basement into a makeshift prison o “Prisoners” were arrested by real cops and brought to the prison. Given numbers, took away personal belongings, put them in prison garb o Prison guards were dressed like officers, given club (but not allowed to use it) o Participants started falling into roles quickly o Prisoners felt helpless, guard corrupt with power o study had to stop after 4 or 5 days? |
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Groupthink
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• A kind of faulty thinking on the part of highly cohesive groups in which the critical scrutiny that should be devoted to the issues at hand is subverted by social pressures to reach consensus
• Antecedent conditions o High cohesiveness o Insulation of the group o Lack of procedures for information search and appraisal o High stress with a low degree of hope for finding a better solution than one favored by the leader or other influential people • Motivation o Concurrence-seeking • Symptoms of groupthink o Illusions of invulnerability o Collective rationalization o Belief in inherent mortality of the group o Stereotypes of outgroups o Direct pressure on dissenters o Self-censorship o Illusion of unanimity • Symptoms of defective decision making o Incomplete survey of objectives o Incomplete survey of alternatives o Poor information search o Failure to examine risks of preferred choice o Selective bias in processing information at hand o Failure to reappraise alternatives o Failure to work out contingency plans • Preventing groupthink o Not being present during the beginning of the discussion o Playing devil’s advocate (absolves you of any blame) o Power figure leaving the discussion o Bringing in outside experts (and actually listening to them |
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Bystander effect
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• When someone is observing a situation unfold but is not directly involved in situation. The person is a passive participant.
• Example: Kitty Genovese was raped and stabbed multiple times right in front of her apartment building. Some people yelled at the attacker to leave her alone. He fled, but then after noticing that no one was coming to help her, he returned. This happened two-three times. Someone eventually called the police. There were 40 witnesses. • Diffusion of responsibility is a typical byproduct of the bystander effect. The greater the number of people around, the lower the likelihood is of someone getting help (assumes someone else is doing it |
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Case study methodology
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• An intensive, in-depth study of a single individual, taking into account all available data including observations, tests, interviews, as well as researcher's own speculations.
• Advantages: o Provides rich, descriptive, & interesting data. o Focus on uniqueness of individual • Disadvantages: o Cannot determine causes (describes rather than explains child). o Lack of external validity (generalizability). How to do Case Study 1. Interviews a. Structured interview: s research procedure in which participants answer a predetermined set of questions b. Clinical interviews: a procedure in which questions are adjusted in accord with the answers the interviewee provides (mostly this) c. When do children begin to think logically? i. Why is the sky blue? ii. Why don't people fall off the earth? iii. What are clouds made out of? iv. Ask scientific questions. Make them really think. d. Advantages . Yields in-depth information quickly i. Easy to administer e. Disadvantages . Possibility of biased responses (compare responses to other data) 1. Naturalistic Observation a. Use when the primary goal of research is to describe how children behave in their usual environment b. Advantages i. Provides rich, descriptive data ii. Witness child in natural setting c. Disadvantages . Generalizability (external validity) i. Unable to determine subjective experience of child (don't know what's going on in the kid's head) ii. May not witness all behaviors of interest iii. Possible participant reactivity 1. Structured Observation a. Involves presenting a specific task or problem for child to undertake or resolve b. Advantages i. Allows for comparison w/ other children ii. Provides quick, targeted information c. Disadvantages . Provides only limited information (not experience of child) i. Artificial context Projective tests • Used to discover unconscious motivations, attitudes through analysis of response to ambiguous stimuli (drawings, doll house, Child's Apperception Test) can be interpreted in many ways • We project the answer onto the test • A structured task (i.e. ink blot test) • Drawings: form of projective test. Ask them to draw a house, a tree, a person, and a family. No wrong way of drawing, however, we can gain a sense of how they view these objects. They will project family dynamics, self-concept of an individual, how they view their home, tree deepest unconscious feelings (no apples before puberty, apples after puberty) • Child's Apperception Test o Tell me a story from looking at the picture • Advantage o Elicits information otherwise difficult to obtain • Disadvantage: o Subjective interpretation may not be valid |
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Stages of Prenatal Development
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o Results from the union of two gametes, the egg and the sperm
• Sex differences begin at conception o Approximately 120-150 males are conceived for every 100 females o Male embryos are miscarried at higher rates than female embryos, and boys are more vulnerable to developmental disorders o Males are also more vulnerable to illness throughout the life span • The Zygote o The fertilized egg or zygote, has full complement of human genetic material, half from each parent o Marks the beginning of the three periods of prenatal development o Look at table 2.1 in Chapter 2 • Stages o Conception to two weeks Germinal • Begins with conception and lasts until the zygote becomes implanted in the uterine wall. Rapid cell division takes place • 3rd to 8th week o Embryonic o Following implantation, major development occurs in all organs and systems of the body. Development takes place through the processes of cell division, cell migration, cell differentiation, and the cell death, as well as hormonal influences o Ends when the bones start to form • 9th week to birth o Continued developmental physical structures and rapid growth of the body. Increasing levels of behavior, sensory experience, and learning • Developmental processes o Developmental processes transform into an embryo and then into a fetus i. Cell division: the proliferation of cells ii. Cell migration: the movement of cells within the embryo iii. Cell differentiation: transforms embryo's unspecialized stem cells into different types of cells iv. Apoptosis: genetically programmed cell death (pruning) • Early development o By the 4th day after conception, the zygote arranges itself into a hollow sphere of cells (blastocyst) o The inner cell mass eventually forms into the embryo • The embryo o The supper system includes Placenta: permits the exchange of materials between the bloodstream of the fetus and that of the mother Umbilical cord: the tube that contains the blood vessels that travel from the placenta to the developing organism and back again |
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Violation of expectation/surprise paradigm
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• In these studies, the perceptual novelty of an event is pitted against the impossibility of the event. instead of the experimenter knowing a priori which test stimulus will be more novel or unexpected for the infant, the infant must indicate to the experimenter which stimulus is more novel or unexpected.
• in an early example, infants were first habituated to a screen that rotated up and then down 190 degrees, at the from of an empty stage. In the test, an object was placed on the stage behavior the screen so that it would block the screen’s rotation. then the screen either rotated 112 degrees (a physically possible event) or 180 degrees (a physically impossible event. |
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Temperament goodness of fit and categories
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• Goodness of fit- how well a child’s temperament fits with their environment
• Categories: o Easy- Adjust readily to new situations, quickly established daily routines such as sleeping and eating, and generally were cheerful in moord and eay to calm o Slow to warm up- Somewhat difficult at first but became easier over time as they had repeated contact with new objects, people, and situations o Difficult- slow to adjust to new experiences, tended to react negatively and intensely to novel stimuli and events, and were irregular in their daily routine and bodily functions |
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Attachment research (Freud, Harlow)
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• Harry Harlow
o Experimental work with monkeys o Freud said we make attachments with the mother because she feeds us (babies) o Harlow questioned this o Take infant monkeys away from parents, give the infant monkey of fake mothers i. Will provide nothing but milk Wired Mother ii. Will not provide milk, but will provide warmth and comfort Cloth Mother o Which one will they choose? o Freud: the Wired mother o They chose cloth mother • Attachment theory o Children are biologically predisposed to develop attachments with caregivers |
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Strange situation research methodology
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• Ainsworth's Research
o "The Strange Situation" assess infants' attachment to their primary caregivers o Episodes in Ainsworth's Strange Situation Procedure o Emotional stress test o Two important to look at closely: how the baby react to the stranger alone, how the baby reacts when the mother returns |
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WISC
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• Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
• Age 6-17 years • 15 subtests |
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Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development
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1. Trust vs. mistrust (birth-1 year)
a. Doesn't expect much from an infan b. Cry when they cry, poop when they poop. We take care of it c. If all goes well, the kid comes out of the womb: hungry->gets food, thirsty-> get something to drink, you poop-> someone cleans it up. You started developing a fundamental trust of the world. 2. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1-3.5 years) . Potty training a. It's the first thing society asks of you b. You have to start controlling your own physical self c. Bad: society just wants from thing from me and I can't do it 3. Initiative vs. guilt 4-6 years . Exploring, curious a. Good: they develop a sense of initiative. Whenever I explore good things happen in my life. b. Bad: you break stuff, time-outs, restrictive behavior. Every time I try exploring the world, I screw things up 4. Industry vs. inferiority 6-puberty . Learning to read, social interaction with peers, going to school, turning in homework, writing a. Problem solving b. Good: I can accomplish tasks c. Bad: Falling behind, not able to make friends 5. Identity vs. role confusion (diffusion) . Identity: a sense of continuity between one's past, present, and future selves. A feeling of being at home in one's body, a sense of knowing where one is going, an inner assuredness of recognition from others a. Identity is achieved by making vocational, ideological, and interpersonal commitments. b. Diffusion is result of lack of commitments of the self c. Someone with a strong identity know who they are and who they will be d. Committed e. People who wonder who they're going to be today, are confused, diffused 6. Intimacy vs. isolation . Becoming one with your partner, you need a self to give 7. Generativity vs. stagnation . Giving back to future generations, at this stage, the person begins to plant tree under whose shade they will never sit under. Those who don't do this sit alone and do anything 8. Integrity vs. despair . Look back on their life and feel that they have had a significant influence on society |
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Psychosocial moratorium
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• A time of biological/cognitive maturation and yet sanctioned postponement of society roles
• Not universal • You're an adult • However, you're given time to figure out who you are • 25 for USA |
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Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
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• Sensory-motor
o Birth-2 years o Infants know the world through their sense and their actions o What they see, feel, and how they act on the world o Example: 1 year old, put a full glass of milk in front of them, they will try various things with it (knocks it over) o Sub-stages Birth-1 month: infants begin to modify the reflexes with which they are born to make them more adaptive 1-4 months: infants begin to organize separate reflexes into larger behaviors, most of which are centered on their own bodies 4-8 months: object permanence typically emerges the knowledge that objects continue to exists even if you don't see them 8-12 months: children make the A-Not-B error. Hide something from them, put it under the blanket, find it. Have 2 blankets, put it under the other blanket, kid checks the first blanket not the one with the object 12-18 months: begin to actively explore the potential sense of objects 18-24 months able to form enduring mental representations. The first sign of this capacity is deferred imitation (watch an adult do something, keep it in mind, and they do it later) • Preoperational o 2-7 years o Children acquire the ability to internally represent the world through language and mental imagery. (operation: a mental routine for transposing information) o Symbolic representation: the use of one object to stand for another i.e. piece of chalk is a rocket ship, gun o Egocentrism: limited ability to perceive the world from others' viewpoints i.e. over the phone "how old are you?" they put four fingers up. You can't see me, I can't see them! Parallel conversations, never intersect. o Piaget's three-mountain task What does the doll see compared to her? Must have the same view I have o Preoperational stage Lack of understanding of the conservation concept, the idea that merely changing the appearance of objects does not change their key properties What they perceive overwhelms what they know Examples: glass liquid experiment, pennies experiment (spacing) Dominated by what they see overwhelms their cognition • Concrete Operational o 7-12 years o Children become able to think logically, not just intuitively. They understand that events are often influenced by multiple factors, not just one. o They can perform operations o Children begin to reason logically about the world o They can solve conservation problems but their successful reasoning is largely limited to concrete situations o Thinking systematically remains difficult • Formal operational o 12+ adolescents can think systematically and reason about what might be as well as what is. This allows them to understand politics, ethics, and science fiction, as well as to engage in scientific reasoning o Huckleberry Fin Concrete: a boy and a slave on adventures Formal: relationship, racial harmony, justice o Ability to think abstractly and metaphorically o Reason hypothetically o Can imagine alternative worlds o What if you lived on the moon? We would have schools, people, just like Earth (concrete) o Third eye? In the middle of our forehead (concrete). In my throat (formal) |
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Piagetian conservation tasks
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• The idea of the conservation concept is that merely changing the appearance or arrangement of objects does not necessarily change their key properties, such as the quantity of the material. There are three types of tasks used to study this concept in 5-8 year olds
o Conservation of liquid: This is task is popularly known as the beaker task. The experimenter uses three beakers: two squat ones, and one tall one. The experimenter pours an equal amount of liquid into both of the squat containers. The child is asked which container has more liquid in it. The child should respond that the two amounts are equal. Then the experimenter pours the liquid from a squat container into the tall container. The experiment then asks which container has more liquid. Because the tall glass appears to have more liquid, the child says the tall beaker (even though the child watched the experimenter pour the liquid in the squat beaker into the tall beaker!) o Conservation of solid quantity: The experimenter take out two balls of clay which have the same amount of clay in them. The experimenter asks the child to confirm that the two balls are equal in size. The experimenter then stretches one of the balls out and asks which clay ball has more clay in it. The child replies that the longer piece has more clay in it (even though the child watched the experimenter stretch the clay out!) o Conservation of number: The experimenter takes out 14 pennies and forms the pennies into two lines of seven that run parallel to each other. the experiment asks the child who has more pennies? The child should respond that they both has an equal amount of pennies. The experimenter then makes the spaces between his pennies wider. The child is asked again who has more pennies, to which the child responds that the experimenter has more pennies (even though the child watched the experimenter move the pennies!) |
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Marshmallow impulse control task
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• This task used to test the child’s control over his/her impulses. If the child is able to control his/her urges, then he/she is rewarded. A well known example is placing a marshmallow in front of a seated child on a table. The child must stay seated for 12-15 minutes before eating the marshmallow. If the child doesn’t eat the marshmallow before the designated time is up, he/she will receive a second marshmallow.
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False belief (Theory of Mind)
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• The false belief task tests the child’s capacity to think outside of the child’s self. The child begins to develop an understanding of the outside world, and that other people have different thoughts, ideas, and emotions as him/her. There are a few tasks used in order to test a child’s theory of mind.
• Box Task: An experimenter shows the child a box labeled “crayons”. The experimenter asks what they think is inside of the box? The child should respond that there are crayons in the box. The experimenter opens the box and candles fall out. The child corrects him/herself and says that candles are in the box. The experimenter then puts the candles back in a crayon box and takes out a stuffed animal. It is explained to the child that the stuffed animal did not watch the experimenter open the box labeled crayons. When the child is asked what the stuffed animal would think is inside of the box, the child responds candles. The child believes that the stuffed animal has the same thoughts and experiences as his/hers, and therefore believes that everyone sees what he sees. • Sally/Anne Task: Sally and Anne are dolls. Sally has a box in front of her and Anne has a basket in front of her. Both containers have covers over them. The experimenter puts a cookie inside of Sally’s box. The experimenter asks the child where Sally thinks her cookie is. The child should reply that the cookie is in Sally’s box. Sally is then placed under the table (out of view). The experimenter places the cookie in Anne’s basket. Sally is brought out from under the table and placed in front of her box. The experimenter asks where Sally thinks her cookie is. The child responds that she thinks her cookie is in Anne’s basket. Again, the child does not understand that Sally does not see the same things the child sees. |
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Baumrind’s Parenting Styles
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• Authoritarian Parenting
o To get a mental image of the archetypical authoritarian family, try picturing a typical 1950s American family: There are traditional family values (patriarchal), set family roles, firm rules and everybody behaves in a predictable, orderly fashion. o Main child discipline instrument: Strict control maintained via rigid rules. Rules are typically enforced via threat and punishment. o The authoritarian parents' behavior, value and belief system: The authoritarian parents are conservative, conformist and norm abiding. Rigidity, harshness and predictability create a desired sense of being in control. Traditional roles and values are to be followed unquestionably. There are strict rules of child conduct. Misbehavior is considered a serious threat to the much cherished established order. The authoritarian parents see the world in only black and white, good or bad, right or wrong etc. This means that there is a lot of judgment and evaluation. A child is either good or bad, well-behaved or naughty. Children are often looked upon with critical eye. They are basically perceived as non-equals, and sometimes even subconsciously perceived as enemies that pose a threat to order of things and therefore must be kept down. Rules and orders are not explained but are to be obeyed instantly and unquestionably. Discussion such as give and take dialogue is not encouraged. Praise and reward are potentially dangerous because of the idea that they may lead to children becoming 'too full of themselves' and consequently developing too much autonomy and straying off the 'good' path. A good child is a child that lives up to expectations of 'mature' ('adult') behavior: such as being independent, well-behaved, undemanding, non-emotional, participating in house chores to develop a sound work ethic etc. o Kids' social behavior and inner being (the effect of the authoritarian parenting style): Kids of authoritarian parents quickly learn to adjust to the parents' expectations. In other words they are well-behaved out of fear: "If I don't behave, I will be punished!" They tend to willingly obey authorities. They have internalized and accepted the prevailing norm and value system which means they do relatively well in school, do not engage in 'deviant' behavior such criminal acts or experimental drug or alcohol use. They are not used to making independent choices, taking full responsibility for themselves and do not experiment much with new ways of doing things or alternative ways of thinking. According to research, kids of authoritarian parents are not as socially 'skilled' as kids from authoritative and permissive families. According to research they find it difficult to handle frustration: girls tend to give up in the face of challenges and boys tend to react with aggressiveness. According to research, they are also more prone to suffer from low self-esteem, anxiety and depression. • Permissive Parenting o The archetypical image of permissive parenting, also called indulgent parenting, is that of a conflict scared parent desperately trying to maintain a 'friendship' with his or her bossy child rather than being 'a parent'. o Main child discipline instrument: Use of reasoning, manipulation and / or bribes as means to achieve some level of control. o The permissive parents' behavior, value and belief system: Permissive parents believe in the autonomy of the individual. The world is seen as a free place filled with opportunities just waiting to be seized. Permissive parents believe in responding to their children's desires in an accepting and caring manner. The child is viewed as a 'child' and is not expected to behave according to 'mature' or 'adult' standards. Traditional child discipline and rigid rules of conduct are seen as restrictive of a child's natural development and free, independent thinking. Children are perceived as equals and are included in decision making processes and are encouraged to communicate and discuss rather than just obey. Permissive parents dislike and tend to avoid confrontations and the overt use of power to shape and regulate their kids behavior. o Kids' social behavior and inner being (the effect of the permissive parenting style): A complete lack of limits, absence of authority figures, no consistent routines, no predictability may lead to a sense of insecurity in the child: "How far can I go and what can I count on?" Because of the potential experience of wavering, conflict scared parents the child may become bossy or dominating as he or she tries to search for limits where there are none. Because of the installed beliefs that the world is open for experimentation and that there are very few 'musts', children of permissive parents are found to be more impulsive and involved in 'problematic' behavior such as drug and alcohol use and do less well in school than kids from authoritative and authoritarian parents. As these kids are brought up in the belief that they are adults' equals, they are well equipped in dialogue, have high social skills and high self-esteem and low levels of depression. • Authoritative parenting o Baumrind views authoritative parenting as a sort of middle ground, taking the best from the authoritarian parenting style, high control, and the best from the permissive parenting style, high responsiveness. o Main child discipline instrument: Control is achieved via the use of firm but fair reasoning as a base for 'moderately' open negotiations along with positive reinforcement. o The authoritative parents' behavior, value and belief system: Just like the authoritarian parents, the authoritative parents' control is firm and standards of behavior are high. The difference is that authoritative parents are not 'keeping' their children down or restricting them as a sort of preventive measure for bad behavior. The authoritative parents strive towards letting their children live out their potentials but within an overall controlled framework: "You can go as far as this point, but exceeding this boundary will not be tolerated!" "They monitor and impart clear standards for their children’s conduct. They are assertive, but not intrusive and restrictive. Their disciplinary methods are supportive, rather than punitive. They want their children to be assertive as well as socially responsible, and self-regulated as well as cooperative" (Baumrind, 1991, p. 62). In this way authoritative parents recognize that a child needs to have a degree of say but will always make sure to have the final word. In this way they strive to balance a child's need for autonomy and their own need for discipline and control. Authoritative parents use praise and positive attention as a way to make their child 'want to' behave well: "If I behave and do well, I will get positive attention and affection!" Authoritative parents make an effort to understand their child and teach them how to understand their own feelings, think of ways to solve problems and encourage them to follow independent but still norm supportive ways. o Kids' social behavior and inner being (the effect of the authoritative parenting style): Because of the use of positive reinforcement (praise) along with logical and fair rules done in a warm, caring manner, the child has learnt that behaving and following the rules feels good and gets them positive attention. Their ability to decode and subsequently live up to their parent’s rules and expectations provide them with well-developed social skills and emotional regulation. According to research, kids of authoritative parents do well in school, are self-confident and goal orientated |
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Sociometric (Peer status) categories
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• A sociometric survey is a general method used to measure a child’s social status, typically in a classroom setting. A roster is given to each student. Each student is then asked to circle whichs kids they like, dislike, who are aggressive, good at sharing, popular, mean, loners, etc. Each child is then placed in one of five categories: controversial, rejected, neglected, popular, or average.
• Controversial: a kid who is both liked and disliked by many. • Rejected: a kid who is disliked by many and not included. • Neglected: a child that goes unnoticed. Not particularly liked or disliked. • Popular: a kid that is liked by most. • Average: a well-rounded child. |
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Genie
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• Tied to a potty chair for 10 years.
• Taken away from parents then rehabilitated. • Investigators tried to teach her how to speak in the attempt to disprove the controversial theory that language development is only possible during the early stages of develop. There is a point of no return • In the end, Genie could not speak in complete sentences. • Was sent to live with foster parents but was abused again. • Taken away again and put in a nursing home |
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Understand the difference between Axis 1 & Personality (Axis II) Disorders
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Axis 1: Not as pervasive in a lifetime, mood disorders
Majority mental disorders Developmental disorders Learning disabilities Axis 2: Personality disorders & Mental Retardation Enduring patients which is inflexible and pervasive access a broad range of personal and social situations, lasts long time |
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Psychoanalysis
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Freud’s method of treating mental illnesses.
Uses free association to find patterns in patient’s sessions, then probes into what Freud called “hot spots” Three main goals of this therapy: To uncover the inner problem To become psychically integrated To uncover sources of past pain that may be embedded in the present, causing ripples, or at time whirlpools, of the past in the present |
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Resistance
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Client doesn't want to talk about something
Conscious or unconscious |
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Transference
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The therapy situation in which the patient responds on the therapist as though he or she were a significant figure i the patient’s past, usually a parent.
Countertransference is when one activates unconscious wishes and fantasies on the part of the therapist towards the patient. It can either be elicited by and indicative of the patient’s projections or come from the therapist’s tendency to respond to patient as though they were significant others in the life, history, or fantasy of the therapist. |
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Free association
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Reason for this technique: neither the patient nor the therapist knows where the keys to the patient’s problems will come from until they find them (typically from an uninhibited place)
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Interpretation
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How the Alderian psychologist facilitates insight. Through interpretation, the therapist hold a mirror to the patient.
Used as a catalyst for change in the patient’s perceptions and behaviors. |
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Insight
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Adlerian: understanding translated into constructive action. It reflects the patient’s understanding of the purposive nature of behavior and mistaken apperceptions, as well s an understanding of the role both play in life movement.
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Client-centered therapy
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People are inherently motivated to grow, to become more positive
If you give opportunities to do so, then they will be positive Supply conditions in which this can occur What are these conditions? Unconditional positive regard Complete acceptance of how the patient feels but necessarily their behaviors, plans Understanding the feelings Genuineness/congruence Honesty, how do you really feel during the therapy session? Therapist is open and honest Willingness to share feelings with client Empathy Understanding client's feelings and communicating this to the client |
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Behavior therapy
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Therapist uses counterconditioning techniques to foster learning and specific responses
Applied behavior analysis Skinner Relies on operant conditioning, the fundamental assumption being that behavior is a function of its consequences Accordingly, treatment procedures are based on altering relationships between overt behaviors and their consequences. Applied behavior analysis makes use of reinforcement, punishment, extinction, stimulus control, and other procedures derived from laboratory research. cognitive processes are considered private events and are not regarded as proper subjects of scientific analysis Neobehavioristic Pavlov Relies on classical conditioning particular interest in studying anxieties Techniques of systematic desensitization and flooding, both closely associated with this model, are directed toward the extinction of the underlying anxiety assumed to maintain phobic disorders Private events, especially imagery, have been an integral part in this approach, including systematic desensitization. The rationale is that covert processes follow the laws of learning that govern overt behaviors. Social-Cognitive theory Bandura The influence of environmental events on behavior is largely determined by cognitive processes governing how environmental influences are perceived and how the individual interprets them. Psychological functioning, according to this view, involves a reciprocal interaction among three interlocking sets of influences: behavior, cognitive processes, and environmental factors. |
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Systematic desensitization
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A step-by-step procedure for replacing anxiety with relaxation while gradually increasing exposure to an anxiety-producing situation or object
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Aversion therapy
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Uses operant conditioning and negative reinforcement in order to increase anxiety
Used to treat addiction Bad stimulus paired with what the participant is addicted to. |
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Social skills training
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Shaping- patient is reinforced to behave in a certain way
Modeling- patient is exposed to good behaviors |
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Cognitive therapy
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Based on a theory of personality that maintains that people respond to life events through a combination of cognitive, affective, motivational, and behavioral responses.
Aims to adjust information processing and initiate positive change in all systems by acting through the cognitive system Strategies: Collaborative empiricism: views the patient as a practical scientist who lives by interpreting stimuli but who has been temporarily thwarted by his or her own information-gathering and integrating apparatus Guided discovery: directed towards discovering what threads run through the patient’s present misperceptions and beliefs and linking them to analogous experiences in the past. Thus, the therapist and patient collaboratively weave a tapestry that tells the story of the development of the patient’s disorder Socratic dialogue Clarify or define problems Assist in the identification of thoughts, images, and assumptions Examine the meanings of events for the patient Assess the consequences of maintaining maladaptive thoughts and behaviors Techniques Cognitive Automatic thoughts Maladaptive assumptions- Decatastrophizing- playing the “what-if” game Reattribution- Considering alternative causes of events Redefining- issues with personal control Decentering- anxiety, have everyone’s attention Behavioral Homework- apply cognitive principles between session Exposure therapy- make patient used to tension and anxiety Behavioral rehearsal and role playing- practice skills that apply to life Diversion techniques- reduce strong emotions and decrease negative thinking Activity scheduling- provides structure and encourages involvement Graded-task assignment- patient initiates task, therapist gradually increases difficulty |
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Cognitive distortions/errors in thinking
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Cognitive distortions
Arbitrary inference- drawing a conclusion without solid evidence Overgeneralization- Mistaking isolated incidents for the norm Magnifying/minimizing- mistaking too much or too little of something Personalizing- Inappropriately taking responsibility Dichotomous Thinking- Black and White thinking |
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Main categories of medications and how they differ from each other (antianxiety,
antipsychotic, antidepressant, mood stabilizers) |
Anti-anxiety
Used to reduce anxiety by increasing the effectiveness of GABA (excitability neuron) High chance for addiction Valium and Xanax Anti-Psychotics Usually used to treat schizophrenia like delusions and hallucinations by blocking dopamine receptors and inhibit departure production Ex: Thorazine, Haldol Antidepressant Acts to increase the production and transmission of various monoamines Used to reduce depressive symptoms Ex: Zoloft, Lexapro Mood stabilizers Manage bipolar disorder The inhibit monoamines such as serotonin based on the theory that excessive monoamies causes mania Ex: Lithium |
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Differences between psychodynamic, humanistic, behavioral, and cognitive therapies Dante
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Psychodynamic: Emphasizes the role of the unconscious
Humanistic: Emphasizes the positive evolving free will in people Behavioral: emphasizes behavior change/reinforcement Cognitive: emphasizes exposure and maladaptive thought and reasoning patterns |
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Cognitive-behavioral therapy
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A psychotherapeutic approach that addresses dysfunctional emotions, maladaptive behaviors and cognitive processes and contents through a number of goal-oriented, systematic procedures
How we feel and what we do |
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Family therapy
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Works with multiple people, a group that derives itself as family, or related the conflict
Views whole family as a client |
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Group therapy
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One or more therapists with multiple clients
Clients not necessarily have conflict with each other Clients at different stages in treatment Group is a support group |
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Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT or “shock therapy”)
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Delivers electric current to the brain and induces convulsions. It is an effective intervention for severely depressed patients
Treats severe depression, mania, catatonics |
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Defense mechanisms
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There is a perpetual battle between the wish (repressed into the id) and the defense mechanisms.
We use defense mechanisms to protect ourselves from feelings of anxiety or guilt, which arise because we feel threatened, or because our id or superego becomes too demanding. They are not under our conscious control, and are non-voluntaristic. With the ego, our unconscious will use one or more to protect us when we come up against a stressful situation in life. Ego-defense mechanisms are natural and normal. When they get out of proportion, neuroses develop, such as anxiety states, phobias, obsessions, or hysteria. Repression This was the first defense mechanism that Freud discovered, and arguably the most important. Repression is an unconscious mechanism employed by the ego to keep disturbing or threatening thoughts from becoming conscious. Thoughts that are often repressed are those that would result in feeling of guilt from the superego. For example, in the Oedipus complex aggressive thoughts about the same sex parents are repressed. Projection This involves individuals attribute their own thoughts, feeling and motives to another person. Thoughts most commonly projected onto another are ones that would cause guilt such as aggressive and sexual fantasies or thoughts. For instance, you might hate someone, but your superego tells you that such hatred is unacceptable. You can 'solve' the problem by believing that they hate you. Displacement Displacement is the redirection of an impulse (usually aggression) onto a substitute target. If the impulse, the desire, is okay with you, but the person you direct that desire towards is too threatening, you can displace to someone or something that can serve as a symbolic substitute. Someone who feels uncomfortable with their sexual desire for a real person may substitute a fetish. Someone who is frustrated by his or her superiors may go home and kick the dog, beat up a family member, or engage in cross-burnings. Sublimation This is similar to displacement, but takes place when we manage to displace our emotions into a constructive rather than destructive activity. This might for example be artistic – many great artists and musicians have had unhappy lives and have used the medium of art of music to express themselves. Sport is another example of putting our emotions (e.g. aggression) into something constructive. Sublimation for Freud was the cornerstone of civilized life, arts and science are all sublimated sexuality. (NB. this is a value laden concept, based on the aspirations of a European society at the end of the 1800 century). Denial Denial involves blocking external events from awareness. If some situation is just too much to handle, the person just refuses to experience it. As you might imagine, this is a primitive and dangerous defense - no one disregards reality and gets away with it for long! It can operate by itself or, more commonly, in combination with other, more subtle mechanisms that support it. For example, smokers may refuse to admit to themselves that smoking is bad for their health. Regression This is a movement back in psychological time when one is faced with stress. When we are troubled or frightened, our behaviors often become more childish or primitive. A child may begin to suck their thumb again or wet the bed when they need to spend some time in the hospital. Teenagers may giggle uncontrollably when introduced into a social situation involving the opposite sex. Rationalization Rationalization is the cognitive distortion of "the facts" to make an event or an impulse less threatening. We do it often enough on a fairly conscious level when we provide ourselves with excuses. But for many people, with sensitive egos, making excuses comes so easy that they never are truly aware of it. In other words, many of us are quite prepared to believe our lies. Reaction formation This is where a person goes beyond denial and behaves in the opposite way to which he or she thinks or feels. By using the reaction formation the id is satisfied while keeping the ego in ignorance of the true motives. Conscious feelings are the opposite of the unconscious. Love - hate. Shame - disgust and moralizing are reaction formation against sexuality. Usually a reaction formation is marked by showiness and compulsiveness. For example, Freud claimed that men who are prejudice against homosexuals are making a defense against their own homosexual feelings by adopting a harsh anti-homosexual attitude which helps convince them of their heterosexuality. |
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Fixations
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Oral fixation
Oral fixation has two possible outcomes. The Oral receptive personality is preoccupied with eating/drinking and reduces tension through oral activity such as eating, drinking, smoking, biting nails. They are generally passive, needy and sensitive to rejection. They will easily 'swallow' other people's ideas. The Oral aggressive personality is hostile and verbally abusive to others, using mouth-based aggression. Anal fixation Anal fixation, which may be caused by too much punishment during toilet training, has two possible outcomes. The Anal retentive personality is stingy, with a compulsive seeking of order and tidiness. The person is generally stubborn and perfectionist. The Anal expulsive personality is an opposite of the Anal retentive personality, and has a lack of self control, being generally messy and careless. Phallic fixation At the age of 5 or 6, near the end of the phallic stage, boys experience the Oedipus Complex whilst girls experience the Electra conflict, which is a process through which they learn to identify with the same gender parent by acting as much like that parent as possible. Boys suffer a castration anxiety, where the son believes his father knows about his desire for his mother and hence fears his father will castrate him. He thus represses his desire and defensively identifies with his father. Girls suffer a penis envy, where the daughter is initially attached to her mother, but then a shift of attachment occurs when she realizes she lacks a penis. She desires her father whom she sees as a means to obtain a penis substitute (a child). She then represses her desire for her father and incorporates the values of her mother and accepts her inherent 'inferiority' in society. This is Freud, remember. He later also recanted, noting that perhaps he had placed too much emphasis on sexual connotations. |
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Learned helplessness
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Theory developed by Martin Seligman. If a person is exposed to helpless situations long enough, they will learn not to struggle or take opportunities for change. An experiment was done with dogs in which the dog was strapped to two beams, and the dog’s paws were exposed to an electrified mat. When the mat was turned on, the dog would jump and try to get away, only to be held down by the straps. Eventually, the dog would stop struggling, now realizing that there is no way to escape. Then the strap were removed. The dog still wouldn’t budge after being shocked, because it learned it was going to happen anyways, so why bother with trying to escape. The experimenters had to physically pull the dog off the mat.
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Congruence
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For a person to achieve self-actualization they must be in a state of congruence, which is the harmony between the idealized self and the real behaviors (self-image).
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Empirical research
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Original research
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Prejudice
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Three major components
Cognitive Affective Behavioral Illusory correlations an incorrect link between two things (e.g. a type of person and a behavior) Leads to overestimate the likelihood of this actually existing Common in SPD because unusual occurrence stick out in our mind Can occur with even one unusual occurrence |
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Stereotype Threat
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Stereotype threat refers to being at risk of confirming, as self-characteristic, a negative stereotype about one's group.
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