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149 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Explain the difference between Constructivist theory and Dialectical theory
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Constructivism theory argues that people produce knowledge and form meaning based upon the experiences; it argues the ability to learn through intrinsic motivation. Dialectical theory is a developmental change that refutes previous thoughts or knowledge.
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______ are organized systems of actions or thoughts that enable individuals to mentally represent objects and events in an attempt to the environment
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Schemes
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What are structures?
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Schemes eventually turn into structures as they get more complex
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What happens to schemes as they are altered by experience?
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They undergo adaptation
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________ is the understanding of something new by fitting that information in with what is ALREADY known
Ex: -A baby sucking on every object the same way they suck on their mom's nipples -Processing new information according to an existing scheme: a child correctly identifying an animal as a dog based on previous experience with them |
Assimilation
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_______ is the development of more appropriate schemes when information does not fit into existing structures
Ex: -Adapting existing scheme to learn new information: Sucking on different objects in different ways -Putting information into a new mental framework: Realizing that cats are different group of animals, thus creating a new scheme for cats |
Accommodation
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_______ is the balance between existing schemes and reality
Ex: -Complex act of searching for balance in organization, assimilation, and accommodation |
Equilibration
-In accordance, in the state of DISEQUILIBRIUM, individuals are motivated to search for through assimilation or accommodation |
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What is the characteristics of the Sensorimotor period of cognitive development?
Hint: (From birth to 2 years) |
The infant represents the world in terms of his/her own sensations and reflexes
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What the characteristics of the Preoperational period of cognitive development?
(From 2-7 years) |
The child is egocentric and he/she fails to use basic operators: compensation, identity, reversibility
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What are the characteristics of Stages of Development?
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- Each stage is qualitatively different
- Transitions are built by experience - Earlier stages are the foundation for later ones - All pass through stages in the same order - All do not reach stages at the exact same age |
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Describe the Modification of Reflexes (Sensorimotor period)
Time periods? |
Baby gains ability to modify their reflexes in order to adapt to the environment. This is from birth to 1 month.
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Describe the Primary Circular Reactions (Sensorimotor period)
Time periods? |
Baby interested in motions they can do with their body as a way of entertainment. Also the reason why they tend to be more egocentric at this age. This is from 1 to 4 months.
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Describe the Secondary Circular Reactions (Sensorimotor period)
Time periods? |
Baby gains interests in motions other than motions they do with their body; gains interest in the motion they can apply to objects. No object permanence: "out of sight, out of mind." This is from 4 to 8 months.
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Describe the Combining of secondary reactions (Sensorimotor period)
Time periods? |
Baby starts to make the "A-not-B error". Gains object permanence but fragile mental representations. This is from 8 to 12 months.
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Explain the "A-not-B error"
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Experimenter shows baby a toy, then hides it in slot A. Experimenter draws the box near the baby for him to retrieve his toy. Repeats the same process twice. On the third time, experimenter puts the toy in slot B and asks the baby to retrieve his toy. Baby tries to retrieve his toy in slot A even though the experimenter makes it apparent that the toy is placed in slot B.
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Describe the Tertiary Circular Reactions (Sensorimotor period)
Time periods? |
Baby actually explores the use of objects instead of just making them move. Gains curiosity about the things work in the world. This is from 12 to 18 months.
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Describe the Mental Representation (Sensorimotor period)
Time periods? |
Baby starts to show symbolic thought and becomes capable of deferred imitation. This is from 18 to 24 months (2 years).
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Describe Symbolic Function (Preoperational period)
Time periods? |
This is child's first advance in development. Child learns to use one item to stand for another. They learn to remember, understand and replicate objects in their mind: these are all essential for language, memory, and pretend play. This is from 2 to 7 years.
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Describe the "Conservation error"
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Children don't understand that one change can compensate for the other.
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In the Three Mountain Problem (Egocentrism), what happens when the experimenter asks the child to report what the he thinks the experimenter sees from the other side of the mountain?
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The child reports things that only he can see and not what the experimenter can see readily. Egocentrism becomes less apparent as children interact with their peers in varied situations.
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Name the limitations of the Piagetian theory
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1. Scientists don't like the stage concept ; they prefer a continuous view of development (Vygotsky's)
2. The vehicle for change is vague -- doesn't describe thought processes or mechanisms. 3. Research today proves that some abilities may develop earlier (object permanence) 4. Social context is underestimated 5. Training and active intervention accelerates cognitive development |
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Why do we still learn about Piaget?
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1. Individuals can easily relate to his findings because Piaget really explains what thinking is like.
2. He founded the scientific study of cognitive development in infancy 3. He found out that cognitive development is intrinsically motivated 4. Proves that babies are not blank slates; babies create their knowledge of the world through experience |
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What are the main themes of Vygotsky's research in infancy?
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1. Social interactions results cognitive development
2. "Cultural tools" lead to advances in psychological functioning (computers) 3. Learning is influenced by Social and Cultural norms 4. Learning in this manner requires learners and teachers to manifest certain characteristics |
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_______ is the distance between what can be done by oneself and what can be done with assistance
Example: Tennis students are able to hit the ball over the net but are challenged by serving. Through appropriate coaching that focuses on their strengths, they are able to learn to serve the ball effectively. |
Zone of proximal development (Vygotsky)
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Sam was not able to draw the house alone; however, with the teacher's artistic guidelines, Sam easily produces the drawing. What is this an example of?
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Scaffolding
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What is the most important psychological tool and why?
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Language: allows the regulation of behavior and formulation of plans.
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What is private speech?
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A child talking to oneself when performing a difficult task. Private speech eventually becomes inner speech.
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Why do we study Vygotsky's theory?
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1. Importance of social contexts
2. Provides new ways to assess cognitive potential 3. Importance of cultural and ethnic traditions 4. Importance of psychological tools 5. Emphasis on microgenetic change over time 6. Offers more possibilities for future research |
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What are the main differences between Piagetian theory and Sociocultural theory (Vygotsky)?
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Piagetian theory
- Emphasis on both nature and nurture - Believes in discontinuous/QUALITATIVE developmental changes - No importance on culture Vygotsky - More emphasis on nurture over nature - Believes in continuous/QUANTITATIVE developmental changes - Heavy Emphasis on culture |
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In the violation of expectation paradigm, infants tend to look longer at situations that are unexpected. When does this ability develop?
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As early as 3 months.
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In the experiment above. Infants tend to look longer at the _____ outcome. Based on research today, explain the why this is the case
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Infants tend to look longer at the impossible outcome. It won't be the same effect if there were 3 items. Research today claim that math is not used, but rather through perceptual processes such as subtilizing (common sense). These data are solely based on TIME.
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What is egocentric representation?
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The coding of location based on one's self and not on the actual location/organization of the objects in relation to the room.
(table organization example shown by professor) |
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What is allocentric representation?
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The coding of location relative to cues in the room and not oneself.
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-How many landmarks can a 6 month remember?
-What kind of landmarks does a 24-26 month use? -How many landmarks can a 5 year old remember? |
- 6 month remembers 1 obvious one.
- 24-26 month starts to use indirect landmarks - 5 year olds can remember many landmarks |
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As dependence on environmental features increases for representation of space ________ decreases
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Egocentrism decreases.
Example of professor not knowing Colorado, but learns the place as soon as she starts driving around |
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At _____ months, infants know that photographs are 2D.
At _____ months, infants know that a photograph or video represents something else. At _____ years, a child can think of something as an object and a symbol. |
-At 18 months, infants know that photographs are 2D
-At 24 months, infants know that a photograph or video represents something else. -At 3 years, a child can think of something as an object and a symbol. |
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How old must a child be in order to avoid "scale errors"?
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Child must be at least 3 years old. 2 to 2 and half year olds will continue to play with toys regardless of the size because of scaling error
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What are the brain regions involved in Memory?
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Prefrontal cortex, posterior cortex, and hippocampus
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Describe the Multiple Memory Systems perspective
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The idea that different types of memory are handled by different regions in the brain.
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______ or ______ memory is consciously recalled and stated verbally
Ex: remembering a person's name ______ or ______ memory affects behavior but not consciously Ex: knowing how to drive |
- Explicit or declarative memory
- Implicit or procedural memory |
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________: format of memory changes so old information can't be accessed
Ex: Storing information in 2001 in floppy disks and trying to retrieve the information in 2014 but we no longer use floppy disk |
Memory format change hypothesis --> infantile amnesia
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________: late maturation of certain brain regions (e.g., hippocampus) limits early storage
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Neural change hypothesis --> infantile amnesia
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_______: Differences in types of cues that trigger memory retrieval may limit later recollection
Ex: As adults we use language to remember things, however, as a child you don't know how to talk so you used some other form of cues of consolidate your memory. |
Cueing hypothesis
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Give an example of Short-Term memory in infants
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Infant imitation of adult facial features
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Give an example of Long-Term memory in infants
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Baby remembers to kick in order to make the mobile move.
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Infants are better able to create autobiographical memory if their parent is _______ which is maternal reminiscing style; and also if the child has developed an understanding of the self
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External
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What is the rouge test and what does it reveal?
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Baby has red on his/her nose, however when they look at the mirror, they don't notice the red dot at all. This means that they don't have an understanding of themselves yet.
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Why is English hard to learn?
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English is hard because of its complicated semantics, pragmatics, phonology, and syntax.
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________ are the sound patterns of language
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Phonology
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________ is the study of word meaning and combinations
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Semantics
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______ is the structure of language
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Syntax
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_______ are rules for context use
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Pragmatics
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Explain the Behaviorist Approach (theories of development)
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Language learning through "reinforcement" and "imitation."
e.g. Operant conditioning Social learning theory: |
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Give an example of operant conditioning
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Reinforcing a child's grammar when he/she says it correctly
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Give an example of Social learning theory
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The professor's child saying "****" after hearing her say multiple times
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What are the list of features that Child-Directed speech, (also known as "motherese") have?
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1. Slower speech
2. Louder voice 3. Accentuation of phonology 4. Fewer words 5. Repetition and expansion of child's utterances |
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Explain the Connectionist approach (theories of development)
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Language learning happens through the creation of networks of associations. Think of Google search. In other words brain operates like a computer.
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Explain the Statistical Learning approach (theories of development)
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Language learning happens through probabilities of sequences of linguistic events
e.g. Babies can detect the intricate patterns in fast speed |
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Explain the Nativist perspective (theories of development)
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Language learning is an innate ability
e.g. -Humans are prewired with a "language acquisition device" -If language is not learned by the age of 13, child won't be able to learn language as good as a native speaker (case of Genie --> critical period) |
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Give an example of how expansion & recasting facilitates infant language development
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Expansion: A child talk about the big bird he saw yesterday and the mother "expanding" on the information the child provided.
Recasting: A child says "fell", and the mother asking the child, "where did you fall" to have the child answer in a complete sentence. |
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What is an example of preverbal communication in infants around 8-10 months? This preverbal communication continues to be used until child can actually talk at around 24 months
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A child raising their hands up, which means they wan to be picked up
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What are the benefits in "infant sign language"?
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The benefits are mixed. Some babies show better vocabulary later, and some don't
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What are the early sounds do babies make?
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1. Crying: parents can infer what baby want by the way baby is crying (learned through experience)
2. Cooing: Vowel-like sounds (around 1 month) 3. Babbling: Consonant-vowel combinations (around 6 months) |
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________ is the ability to recognize and discriminate between consonants
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Categorical speech perception
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Before the age of ______ months, infants are able to differentiate phonemes, however after that, infants are only able to differentiate sound patters from the native language
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10 months
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Explain the Whole Object constraint (constraints on learning)
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Child assumes that the word "dog" applies to every part of the dog (even the dog's ears)
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Explain the Mutual Exclusivity constraint (constraints on learning)
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Child thinks that new word only applies to things that don't already have names. Therefore, it's hard for the baby to think of his dog as a "dog" and a "pet".
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Explain the Taxonomic constraint (constraints on learning)
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New words more likely to refer to objects than relation
e.g. child given a a specific name of a dog, he/she will only remember it by its basic level |
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Explain the Gate Following (constraints on learning)
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Child remembers what speaker was talking about and not what the baby was looking at while the speaker was talking.
e.g. Blicket and toy. Baby looking at toy, but speaker talking about the blicket and looking at the blicket. Baby will recognize the blicket and not the toy. |
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Explain the Grammatical Cues (constraints on learning)
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Child using word endings (suffixes) to interpret unknown words
e.g. This is Sam (dog's name). Compared to, "these 2 are dogs." |
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Explain the Lexical Contrasts (constraints on learning)
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Child depending on the meaning of words they know to define unknown words
e.g. Granular vs. Smooth |
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What is patterned speech? Give an example.
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Fake (pseudo) speech that's patterned and contains no real words.
e.g. Baby copying how their parents talk on the phone |
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Semantic Development
"Naming Explosion" occurs at around ______ months. On average, about _____ words are known at this time. |
18 months. About 50 words are known at this time. Nouns are easier to learn than verbs
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Give an example of underextension and overextension. Happens around 18 months
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Underextension: child calls his/her dog, but not other dogs.
Overextension: child calls all animals with four legs, "dog"; calls a cat, a dog. |
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Give an example of Holophrases. Happens around 18 months
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Infant's use of early utterances of words to communicate more than one meaning.
e.g. Child saying, "up" to be picked up, but also uses the same word to mean to get something up top |
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______ speech are utterances that include only critical words.
e.g. Infant says, "I eat ice cream" when he/she really means, "I wan to eat ice cream". |
Telegraphic speech
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A child showing mastery of the question above indicates their mastery of _______.
e.g. "There are two 'wugs.'" |
Morphology. The infant knows when to add plural suffixes.
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Explain the graph above
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At first, infants learn and understand a lot of irregular words. Then they start to use them wrong. Finally they start to use them correctly again.
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Give examples of Social Elements of Speech (social uses of language)
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Taking turns, politeness, and narrative. These elements emerge early in childhood
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_______ experience is the best way to support language learning, especially bilingualism. This is because the child experiences the cultures and environment of the language.
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Immersion experience
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_______ is the lack of progression through traditional developmental milestones. However, those diagnosed sat 2 years are often on track by 3 or 4 years. (atypical language development)
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Early language delay
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_______ is a neurodevelopment disorder characterized by difficulty with social interaction, language and communication. This is commonly diagnosed between eighteen and thirty-six months; earlier is better due to early intervention. Approximately half of children to do not have functional language
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Autism
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______ is a strong emotional bond that forms between infants and caregivers in the second half of the first year of life
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Attachment:
- relates to the family and cultural context as well - Has an apparent biological basis |
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Explain the Ethological Theory (theories of attachment)
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Attachment that is instinctual in infants responses in order to survive and be protected.
e.g. Imprinting is an ethological attachment because ducks are prewired to depend on the first thing they see to feed them |
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Explain the Psychoanalytic Theory (theories of attachment)
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Attachment is linked to gratification of innate drives
e.g. Oedipus complex Electra complex |
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Explain the Learning Theory (theories of attachment)
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Attachment caused by classical and operant conditioning due to food that parent provides
e.g. Children are conditioned to be attached to parents because they provide them the sustenance of food |
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What did Harry Harlow's studies with Rhesus monkeys prove against the Learning Theory of attachment?
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Monkeys only went to their wired mother for food, however, when the baby monkey was scared by the robot, the monkey went to the clothed mother for comfort
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What are the "early" and "late" issues that were found with monkeys reared in isolation?
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Early issues: Monkey had social conflicts amongst other monkeys
Late issues: Monkey doesn't wanna have sex; rejected, ignored, and sometimes they even killed their own offspring |
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What was John Bowlby's proposal on the attachment theory? (theories of attachment)
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He combined the psychoanalytic and ethological theory of attachment. He believed that attachment to the mother can ensure adequate care and survival. This form of attachment allowed the child to gain confidence and explore unfamiliar situations
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Explain Pre-attachment (developmental trajectory)
Time period? |
-Happens from birth to 2 months. Baby uses crying and grasping to draw parents closer.
-Baby has "indiscriminate social responsiveness"; can be soothed by any adult |
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Explain Attachment In the Making (developmental trajectory)
Time periods? |
-Happens from 2-7 months. Baby starts to distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar individuals, but attachment is not yet known.
-Baby has "discriminate social responsiveness"; prefers to be soothed by familiar people only |
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Explain Clear Cut Attachment (developmental trajectory)
Time periods? |
-Happens from 7-24 months; Baby finally learns to be attached to familiar people only (attachment is known); starts to ask for proximity and contact
-Baby starts to use the parent as a "secure base" to explore; anxiety occurs when separated from parent |
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Explain Reciprocal Attachment (developmental trajectory)
Time periods? |
-Happens from 24 to later; baby learns that parent has feelings and goals, so they plan their actions accordingly (goal-directed partnership)
e.g. cry louder, or follow the parent to seek their attention. |
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________ are expectations of responsiveness by caregiver based on previous experiences; related to dependability
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Internal working model
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In Mary Ainsworth's "Strange Situation" experiment, what do researchers emphasize their research on?
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Researchers emphasize on the "reunion" between parent and child.
Researchers can also look at: - proximity-seeking - contact-maintaining - interaction at a distance - proximity and interaction avoidance - resistance to contact |
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Explain the behavior of parent and child in "Secure Attachment" (attachment classifications)
Percentage: 65% |
Child: explores, seeks reunion & easily comforted
-child tends to be self-confident, social-competent, and autonomous Parent: consistent sensitiveness and responsiveness e.g. (video) Baby stops crying as soon as mother reunites with child. |
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Explain the behavior of parent and child in "Insecure-avoidant Attachment" (attachment classifications)
Percentage: 20% |
Child: explore, indifferent towards parents, ignores parent upon reunion
Parent: insensitive, interfering, controlling (unresponsive) e.g. (video) Baby stops crying but is indifferent towards parent. doesn't want to engage with parent |
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Explain the behavior of parent and child in "Insecure-resistant Attachment" (attachment classifications)
Percentage: 10% |
Child: Fearful of environment, seeks reunion, not easily comforted, clingy
Parent: Inconsistent sensitivity (unpredictable) e.g. (video) Baby still crying even after reunion. Doesn't want to play. Seeks contact, but can't be calmed down by contact. |
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Explain the behavior of parent and child in "Disorganized Attachment" (attachment classifications)
Percentage: 5% |
Child: Unable to cope, dazed, apprehensive
Parent: Negative parenting, abuse, neglect e.g. Child scared by the parent, wants to seek comfort from parent, however, the parent is a source of fear |
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What are the "cognitive" and "social" benefits of secure attachment?
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Cognitive: attentive and participate in class; higher grades
Social: have better relationships; express positive emotions |
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The "_________ interview" measures perceptions of childhood relationships that may have lasting influences. The attachment is evaluated by examining participant narratives
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Adult attachment interview
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________: Coherent, consistent, relevant narrative that includes positives and negatives; cites the importance of early relationships (adult attachment classifications)
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Autonomous
- tend to have children who are warm, secure, & sensitive |
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________: Cannot remember interactions; includes contradictions and minimizes the importance of early relationships (adult attachment classifications)
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Dismissing
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________: Confused and angry reports that are not coherent (adult attachment classifications)
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Preoccupied
- tend to have "insecure" children |
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_______: Stressful experiences, narratives that do not make sense (adult attachment classifications)
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Unresolved or disorganized
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In more than _____% of two-parent families, the father is the primary caregiver when the mother is at work or at school
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20% of two-parent families
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Father involvement varies as a function of _____. Fathers are also more involved with ______ relative to _____. Less involved with their ______ child relative to those who are _____.
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- Culture
- Boys relative to girls - Youngest child relative to those who are elder |
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What is the "symmetry" of sibling relationships? (sibling relationships)
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Sibling Symmetry is more like parent-child relationship than friendship relationships
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What is the "closeness" of sibling relationships? (sibling relationships)
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Closer physically and emotionally but changes over time
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What is the "voluntariness" of sibling relationships? (sibling relationships)
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Children can choose their friends, but not their siblings
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Infants seek out preferred peers at _____ months; social pretend play develops between _____ & _____ months
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12 months; 24 & 30 months
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(relation to cognitive theories)
______ viewed peers as a sound board that openly criticizes, clarifies, elaborates, and requests feedback. |
Piaget
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(relation to cognitive theories)
_____ viewed peers as significant for cooperative learning in order to build new skills and abilities. |
Vigotsky
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What is temperament?
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A set of characteristics that form different personalities
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How do you measure Temperament?
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- Reports from parents/interviews
- Observation - Lab assessments (Laboratory Temperament Assessment Battery) - Neurophysiological assessments, including heart rate, cortisol, pupil dilation and electroencephalogram (EEG) |
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Can the family and characteristics of the environment influence temperament?
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Yes
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Describe "easy temperament" (Three Temperament Categories)
Percentage: 40% |
Infants are cheerful and show positive emotions; adapts well in new situations and novelty
- shows low to moderate intensity |
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Describe "slow to warm up temperament" (Three Temperament Categories)
Percentage: 15% |
Infants show more negative emotions than positive; adapts slow to new situations and novelty
- shows moderate intensity and not very active |
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Describe "difficult temperament" (Three Temperament Categories)
Percentage: 10% |
Infants show lots of negative emotion; adapts slowly to new situations and novelty
- shows high intensity - higher risk for later adjustment problems - shows aggressive behavior in middle childhood |
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Temperament reflects _____ individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation, seen across emotionality, motor activity, and attention (Temperament: Rothbart)
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Biologically based individual differences
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Temperament is usually assessed through _________. This determines performance on various scares that can be combined to form ________. (Temperament: Rothbart)
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Questionnaires; factor scores
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What is the first infant-based questionnaire called and what is being used now? (Temperament: Rothbart)
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Infant Behavior Questionnaire; now we use Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised
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Some dimensions of temperament become apparent at different time during the ______ year(s). (temperament: Rothbart)
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First year
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Describe "surgency/extraversion" (factor scores: Rothbart)
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Infant has high positive emotions and activity level; rarely shy and often impulsive
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Describe "negative affect" (factor scores: Rothbart)
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Infant usually shy; not easily soothed; shows feelings of discomfort, fear, anger, frustration and sadness
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Describe "orienting/regulation" (factor scores: Rothbart)
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Infants want a lot of attention and perception; prefers soothing and cuddling in order to be relieved
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______ is the rate at which individuals engage in vocalizing, speech, and movement (factor scores: Buss and Plomin)
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Activity level
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______ are minimal reactions that are barely discernible to extremely intense reactions (factor scores: Buss and Plomin)
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Emotionality
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______ ranges from preference for being alone to actively seeking out others for contact (factor scores: Buss and Plomin)
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Sociability
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________ is the match between the behaviors of the infant and the expectations of the caregiver. (temperament and attachment)
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Goodness-of-fit
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Is it possible for difficult infants to have secure attachments? (temperament and attachment)
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Yes; parents must attend training programs that will help them develop secure attachments
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What are some positive effects of infants with difficult temperaments paired with insecure attachments? (temperament and attachment)
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Infants show higher distress to novelty scores and performance on intelligence tests
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Continuity is most apparent when measured after _____ delays for _____ individuals. (temperament and personality)
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Lengthy delays; older individuals
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What is the difference of the temperament of Chinese infants and American infants? (effects of culture)
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Chinese infants: more active, showed more distressed in limiting situations, more fearful, more persistent, easily soothed
Chinese children are more inhibited and shy, but didn't show later negativity as seen in American children |
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______ are behaviors related to shyness and social anxiety (effects of culture)
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Behavior inhibition
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Primary emotions do not require _________
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Self-reflection or introspection; infants are born with these emotions and they have survival values
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- Weariness develops at around _____ months
- True fear emerges at around _____ months - "Stranger distress" appear at around _____ months (primary emotion case study: fear) |
3 months
9 months 7-9 months |
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______ is an apparently universal behavior that peaks in Western infants around 15 months. Give an example of how this may reappear at later ages (primary emotion case study: fear)
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Separation protest;
e.g. older children going to summer camp |
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Secondary emotion require a sense of ________
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Self-awareness; happens around 18 months
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______ & ______ are habituation studies of faces with two different emotions (perception of emotions)
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Neonates & emotion perception
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Infants can start to discriminate subtle difference of emotional faces around _____ months (perception of emotions)
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7 months
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Describe how infants react to the "still face paradigm" (perception of emotions)
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Infants are distressed by the still face paradigm because they can read the face of the parent. In the video, the child starts to cry after seeing a static face on his Mom's face
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Describe "emotional contagion" (perception of emotions)
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Infant expressing an emotion that they sense from their parent.
e.g. Parent expressing sadness, infant would also express sadness |
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Describe "social referencing" (perception of emotions)
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Infants respond to the emotional cues of parents/adults
e.g. In the "visual cliff" video, the parent encourages the baby to walk towards the invisible glass |
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_______ are internal and external processes through which emotions are monitored, appraised, and modified so as to achieve goals
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Emotion regulations
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_______ are internal standard that guide behaviors and actions
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Conscience
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_______: parent-child relationship characterized as being positive, close, cooperative, and so on
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Mutual responsive orientation (MRO)
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________ compliance embraces parental standards, values, and adopt them as their own; comply with them in self-regulated way
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Committed
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______ compliance is cooperative, but does not adopt parental standards, values as their own
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Situational
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