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233 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are somesthetic senses?
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Sensations produced by the skin, muscles, joints, viscera, and organs of b
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what are the three types of somesthetic senses?
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Skin senses (touch, pain, pressure, heat, cold)
Kinesthetic senses(receptors in muscles/joints that detect position/movement) Vestibular senses (receptors in inner ear for balance, gravity, acceleration) |
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Pain
What is the warning system |
Sharp, acute pain that is carried by large nerve fibers
Signals that body damage may be occurring (e.g., cuts, burns, etc.) Allows us to take steps to prevent injury |
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Pain
what is the reminding system |
Slower, nagging, aching pain that is carried by small nerve fibers
Is typically more widespread (e.g., lower back pain) Reminds the brain that the body has been injured |
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Sensory conflict theory
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Motion sickness occurs when there is a mismatch between sensations from the eyes, the vesitbular system, and the body
-e.g., after spinning and stipping, fluid in semicircular canals is still spinning, but head is not |
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Sensory adaption
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Sensory receptors respond less with constant exposure to a given stimulus
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Gate control theory
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Pain messages pass through neural "gates" in the spinal cord
-Some messages are blocked while others are allowed to pass through and reach the brain -If gate is closed by one pain message, other messages may not be able to pass through |
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Counterirritation
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A form of "gate control" in which messages from large, fast nerve fibers close the spinal pain gate directly
-Prevents slower, "reminding system" pain from reaching the brain -This may explain acupuncture's efficacy |
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Selective attention
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Awarding priority to a particular incoming sensory message by voluntarily focusing on a specific sensory input
-can think of as s bottleneck (or narrowing) in the information chennel between the senses and the brain --When one message enters the bottleneck, it prevents other messages from passing through --This bottleneck can be widened or narrowed |
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Size constancy
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The perceived size of an object remains the same, even though the size of its image on the retina has changed
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Shape constancy
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The perceived shape of an object is unaffected by changes in its retinal image
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Depth perception
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The ability to visualize 3-dimensional space and to accurately judge distances
-Critical for most everyday tasks |
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Depth cues
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Features of the environment that provide info about distance and 3-D space
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Binocular cues
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depth cues requiring two eyes
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Monocular cues
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depth cues requiring just one eye
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Retinal disparity (Binocular cue)
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A discrepancy in the images that reach the right and left eyes
-Each eye receives a slightly different view of the world |
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Stereoscopic vision (Bincocular depth cue)
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3-D sight that results from the fusion of these two images(retinal disparity)
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Convergence(Binocular depth cue)
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Wwhen you look at an object that lies within 50 feet of you, your eyes have to turn inward(converge) in order to bring the object into focus
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Accomodation(Binocular depth cue)
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The bending of the eye's lens in order to focus on nearby objects
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Pictorial depth cues(Monocular depth cue)
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Features found in paintings, drawing, and photos that provide info about space, depth, and distance
-These cues give the illusion of 3-d dimensions in a two-dimensional space |
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The Moon Illusion
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Perceiving the moon as larger when it is low in the sky
-Occurs because there are many depth cues on the horizon(e.g. houses, trees, landscape) and very few depth cues in the night sky -Can apply to other objects besides the moon |
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The Ponzo Illusion
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We judge the size of an object based on its background
-This helps to explain the Moon illusion |
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Perceptual Construction
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A mental model of external events
-Bottom-up processing: Using low-level features (e.g., individual components, etc.) to create perception -Top-down processing: Basing perceptions on existing knowledge that organizes features into a unified whole |
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Perceptual Learning
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Changes in the brain that alter how we process sensory info
-Past experience plays a key role in this |
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Illusion
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A misleading or distored perception
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Hallucination
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An imaginary sensation, in which people perceive objects or evens that do not exist
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Reality testing
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The process of obtaining additional information to check the accuracy of perceptions
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Consciousness
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All of the sensations, perceptions, memories, and feelings that you are aware of at any given moment
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Waking consciousness
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Normal, clear, organized alertness
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Altered state of consciousness (ASC)
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A condition marked by changes in the quality and pattern of mental activity
-May be caused by substance use, sensory overload, sleep loss, high feve, monotonous stimulation, (e.g., a long drive), etc. |
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Biological/Circadian rythyms
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SLEEP- consistent, cyclical pattern of biological activity that repeats itself roughly every 24 hours
-Explains jet lag and other travel-related symptoms -Is influenced by externam time markers such as daylight, darkness, etc |
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Sleep deprivation
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Sleep loss; being prevented from getting the needed or desired amount of sleep
-Can normally be corrected by one good night of sleep |
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Hypersomnia
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Excessive daytime sleepiness
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Electroencephalograph (EEG)
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A device that detects, amplifies, and records brain waves(electrical activity in the brain)
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Sleep stages
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Levels of sleep identified by change in brain wave patterns and behavior
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Beta waves
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-Small, fast brain waves
-Are associated with alertness |
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Alpha waves
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-Large, slow brain waves
-Are associated with relaxation and falling asleep |
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Delta waves
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-Largest, slowest waves
-Are associated with deepest sleep |
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Stages of Sleep
Stage 1 |
Light sleep; heart rate slows and breathing is irregular; brain waves are small and irregular
-May be marked by hypnic jerk(twitching of reflexes) |
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Stages of Sleep
Stage 2 |
Body temperature drops; sleep spindles(bursts of brain-wave activity) appear
-This marks the true boundary of sleep |
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Stages of Sleep
Stage 3 |
Period of deeper sleep marked by large, slow delta waves
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Stages of Sleep
Stage 4 |
Deepest sleep, almost pure delta waves; occurs within an hour of falling asleep
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REM sleep
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-Period of notbale brain activity marked by fast, irregular EEG patterns (-90 minutes/night)
-Associated w/ vivid dreams, imagery. emotions -Body is typically immobilized during REM sleep |
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Non-REM sleep
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-Typically a dream-free zone
-Increases following physical exertion and may help the body recover from fatigue |
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Temporary insomnia
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Brief period of insomnia triggered by stress, worry, or excitement
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Chronic insomnia
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Sleeplessness that persists for more than 3 weeks
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Drug-dependency insomnia
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Sleeplessness that follows withdrawal from sleeping pills
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Sleepwalking
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Occurs during non-REM sleep
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Sleeptalkng
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Occurs during non-REM sleep
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Nightmares
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Bad dreams that occur during REM sleep
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Night terrors
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A state of panic that occurs during non-REM sleep; may include hallucinations
-Most common during childhood |
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Sleep apnea
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Breathing interruptions, lasting from 20 seconds to 2 minutes; is associated with snoring
-Causes hypersomnia -Treatments: Surgery, sleeping mask, weight loss |
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SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome)
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The sudden, unexplained death of an infant that otherwise appeared to be healthy
-Occurs in infants up to 6 months old -Positioning infants to sleep on their backs is beleived to prevent SIDS |
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How many times per night do most people dream?
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4-5
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REM rebound
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Occurrence of extra REM sleep following REM sleep deprivation
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Functions of REM sleep
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-Facilitates processing of emotional events
-Helps us sort and integrate memories -Assists with problem-solving efforts |
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Psychodynamic Dream Theory (Freud)
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Emphasizes internal conflicts and unconscious forces
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Wish Fulfillment
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Freudian belief that dreams are expressions of unconscious desires
-Much evidence to refute this |
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Dream Symbols
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Images in dreams that have a deeper symbolic meaning (e.g., images that represent hidden ideas, desires, emotions, etc.)
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Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis
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-Dream content is influenced by motor commands in the brain that occur during sleep, but are not carried out
-Is reflected in dreams that involve movement (e.g., running, floating, flying, etc.) |
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Psychoactive drugs
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Substances that are capable of altering attention, memory, judgment, self-control, mood, perception, sense of time, etc.
-Influence activity of brain cells by mimicking or altering neurotransmitters -they activate the brain's reward circuitry |
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Stimulant
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A substance that increases activity in the body and nervous system
-e.g., caffeine, nicotine, hallucinogens, cocaine, amphetamines |
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Depressant
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A substance that decreases activity in the body and nervous system
-e.g., alcohol, narcotics, barbiturates |
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Physical dependence
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Physical addiction, which is indicated by the following conditions:
-Drug tolerance: Reduced physical response to the drug with repeated exposure (more of the drug is required to achieve the same effect) -Withdraw symptoms: physical illness that follows the withdrawal of a drug |
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Psychological dependence
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Dependence that is based on emotional/psychological needs
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Amphetamines
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Synthetic stimulants that excite the nervous systemk rapidly produce drug tolerance
-accelerate the use of bodily resources but do not supply energy -Large does cause nausea, vomiting, dangerously high blodd pressure, heart attacks, and strokes -Street forms such as crystal meth also cause lesions, depression, tooth decay etc. |
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Amphetamine psychosis
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Loss of contact w/ reality because of amphetamine use
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Cocaine
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Powerful central nervous system stimulant drived from leaves of coca plantl was once used as an anesthetic; is highly addictive
-Produces feelings of alertness, euphoria, well-being, power, unlimited energy, and pleasure -Differes from amphetamines in that effects last only 15-30 minutes -Withdrawal causes depression, fatigure, anxiety, paranoia, and anhedonia(inability to feel pleasure) |
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MDNA (Ecstasy)
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Chemically similar to amphetamine; is created via small variations in a drug's structure
-Produces rush of energy, makes ppl feel closer to others, and heightens sensory experiences -Causes brain to release extra serotonin -May cause severe liver damage, hyperthermia (elevated body temp), and heart arrythmias, which can lead to collapse |
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Caffeine
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Supresses fatigue or drowsiness and enhances feelings of alertness
-Most frequently used psychoactive drug in America -Present in soda, chocolate, coffee, tea, energy drinks -Causes brain to release extra serotonin -May cause sweating, verbosity, tinnitus, tremors |
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Caffeinism
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Excessive use of caffeine that leads to physiological dependence and other discomforts (e.g., insomnia, irritability, loss of appetite, racing hearbeat)
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Nicotine
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Natural stimulant found mainly in tobacco
-Is third most frequently used psychoactive drug in the U.S. (behind caffeine and alcohol) -Can cause stomach pain, vomiting, diarrhea, etcl large doses can cause convulsions, respiratory failure, and death -Is associated w/ many different cancers |
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Barbiturates
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Sedatives that inhibit brain activity
-May be prescribed for sleep disorders and anxiety (e.g., pentrobarbital, amobarbital, secobarbital, tuinal) -Overdoes can cause loss of consciousness, depressed heart rate and breathing, and death |
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GHB (Gamma-Hydroxybutyrate)
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Central nervous system depressant that relaxes and sedates; is a combo of degreasing solvent and drain cleaner
-May result in nausea, loss of muscle control, and loss of consciousness, breathing failure, and death -Addictive and deadly |
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Tranquilizers
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A substance that reduces anxiety and relieves tension (e.g. Valium, Xanax, Halcion, Librium)
-Can cause drowsiness, shakiness, and confusion -Rohypnol(roofies)=cheap form of Valium |
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Alcohol
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A substance that reduces inhibitons and produces feelings of relaxation and euphoria
-Large amounts impair the brain to the point of loss of consciousness |
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Binge drinking
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Consuming 5 or more drinks in a short period of time(4 drinks for women)
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Drug interaction
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A combined effect of two drugs in which one drug intensifies the effect of another
-Often lead to fatal overdoses -Combining alcohol w/ barbiturates or tranquilizers is especially risky |
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Learning
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Relatively permanent or stable behavioral change that results from experience
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Reinforcement
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Any event that increases the probability that a behavior will occur
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Response
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Any identifiable behavior
-Internal responses(e.g., heart rate, breathing) -Observable responses(e.g., blinking, smiling) |
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Antecedents
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Events that precede a response
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Consequences
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Events that follow a response
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Classical Conditioning(Pavlovian)
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-Begins w/ a stimulus that reliably triggers a response
Learning that occurs when reflex responses are associated w/ new stimuli -e.g. salivating when you hear the doorbell(signaling that the Papa John's delivery guy has arrived) |
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Unconditioned stimulus
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A stimulus that innately produces a response (no learning is involved)
-e.g., meat powder |
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Unconditioned response
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Innate reflex response that results elicited by the unconditioned stimulus
-e.g., salivation in the presence of meat powder |
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Neutral stimulus
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A stimulus that does no provoke a response
-e.g., sound of bell ringing |
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Conditioned stimulus
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A stimulus that produces a response because it has been repeatedly linked w/ an unconditioned stimulus
-e.g., the bell ringing(when paired w/ meat powder) |
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Conditioned response
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A learned response elicited by a conditioned stimulus
-e.g., salivation in response to the bell ringing |
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Acquisition (training)
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The period in conditioning during which a response is reinforced
-e.g., linking the sound of the bell w/ meat powder |
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Higher order conditioning
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Conditioning in which a conditioned stimulus is now used to reinforce further learning
-The conditioned stimulus is now used in place of the unconditioned stimulus(b/c response to it has become so well learned) -e.g.,linking clapping sound w/ sound of bell |
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Informational view
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The process of looking for relationships between events
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Expectancy
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Expectations about how events are interconnected
-e.g., expect a tetanus shot to hurt; thus, your muscles tense up right beforehand |
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Extinction
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The weakining of a conditioned response through removal of reinforcement
-e.g., if Pavlov's dogs repeatedly hear the bell in isolation (w/ no meat powder following it), eventually salivation will cease -It takes time to reverse the conditioning |
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Spontaneous recovery
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Sudden reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction
-e.g., dog abruptly begins to salivate to the bell again |
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Stimulus Generalization
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The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar, but not identical, to a conditioned stimulus
-e.g., responding to a phone ringing when the conditioning stimulus was a bell |
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Stimulus Discrimination
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The learned ability to respond differently to similar stimuli
-e.g., learning to responding differently to different types of bells (alarm clock, doorbell, microwave, etc. |
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Phobia
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An unrealistic, irrational fear that persists in the absence of danger
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Conditioned emotional response
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An emotional response that has been linked to a previously non-emotional stimulus by classical conditioning
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Desensitization
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Gredual exposure to feared stimuli while the person is calm and relaxed
-Eventually extinguishes fears, phobias, etc. |
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Vicarious classical conditioning
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Classical conditioning that occurs by ovserving another person's reactions to a particular stimulus
-This may influence young children's likes/dislikes fears, attitudes, etc. |
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Operant conditioning
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Learning that is based on the consequences (outcomes) of responding
-Responses may be followed by rewards, punishment, or nothing -These outcomes determine the likelihood of the response occurring in the future |
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Law of Effect
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The probability of a response occurring is altered by the effect that it has
-Responses that lead to positive effects (rewards) tend to be repeated -Responses that produce undesirable results are not repeated |
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Operant reinforcer
(Positive Reinforcement) |
Any outcome that follows a response and consistently increases the probability of it occurring again
-What is reinforcing for one person may not necessarily be reinforcing for another person |
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When is operant reinforcement most effective?
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When it rapidly follows the desired response
-The response and reinforcement must occur close enough in time that they appear to be related |
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Supersitious behaviors
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Behavior that is repeated because it appears to produce reinforcement, even though in actuality the behavior is unnecessary
-e.g., the various rituals basketball players display at the free throw line |
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Shaping
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Gradually molding responses to fit a desired pattern
-Successive approximations: Rewarding each step that leads up to the desired response -e.g., to teach rat to press a bar: -First reward him for facing the bar -Then reward him for taking a step toward the bar -etc |
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Operant extinction
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Learned responses that are not reinforced gradually fade away
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Positive reinforcement
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Wwhen a response is followed by a reward or other positive event
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Negative reinforcement
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When a response is followed by the removal of an unpleasant event or the cessation of discomfort
-e.g., taking aspirin to make your headace go away; hitting the snooze to make the alarm clock stop beeping |
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Punishment
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When a response is followed by an aversive (undesirable) consequence
-e.g., spanking a child for bad behavior |
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Response cost
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Removal of a positive reinforcer after a response is made
-e.g., taking away a child's allowance for bad behavior |
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Learning
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Relatively permanent or stable behavioral change that results from experience
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Response
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Any identifiable behavior
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Reinforcement
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Any event that increases the probability that a behavior will occur
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Conditioning
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The process by which learning occurs
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Primary reinforcers
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Non-learned reinforcers; usually satisfy physiological needs (e.g., food, water, sex, etc.)
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Secondary reinforcers
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A learned reinforcer (e.g., praise, approval, success, money, grades, etc.)
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Token reinforcer (secondary reinforcer)
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Tangible secondary reinforcer(e.g., poler chips, credits, gold stars, punch card, etc.)
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Social reinforcer
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Reinforcement based on provision of social rewards (e.g., attention, approval, affection)
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Feedback (aka knowledge of results)
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Information about the effects a response has had (e.g., sound effects in video games)
-Significantly improves learning and performance -Especially important for complex skills (e.g., learning a new language, playing sports, learning music, etc.) |
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Continuous reinforcemtn
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Every correct response is followed by reinforement
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Partial reinforcement
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A pattern in which some (but not all) responses are reinforced
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Schedule of reinforcement
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A plan for determining which responses will be reinforced
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Partial reinforcement effect
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Partial reinforcement produces responses that are highly robust and therefore resistant to extinction
-Is due primarily to the inability to predict which responses will be reinforced (e.g., playing slot machines) |
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What are Ratio schedules based on?
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the number of correct responses that occurs between reinforcemtns
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Fixed ratio schedule
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Reinforcement is given after a set number of correct responses
-e.g., reinforcement for every 5th correct response, etc. |
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Variable ratio schedule
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The number of correct responses required for reinforcement varies w/in a given range
-e.g., reinforcement for every 3rd-7th correct responses(Everages to every 5th response, but actual number varies) -Is less predictable and therefore more effective |
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What are interval schedules based on?
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The passage of times that occurs between reinforcements
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Fixed interval schedul
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The first correct response that occurs after a set amount of time has passed is reinforced
-e.g., correct responses that occur at least 30 seconds after the last reinforced response are reinforced |
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Variable interval schedule
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The first correct response made after a varied amount of time has passed is reinforced
-e.g., correct responses that occur an average of 30 seconds after the last reinforced response are reinforced but actual time interval varies |
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Punisher
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Any consequence that reduces the frequency of a target behavior (e.g., spanking, reprimad, fines, loss of priveleges, probation, etc.
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What are the three keys to effective punishment?
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Timing, Consistency, Intensity
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Aversive stimulus
(Punishment Concepts) |
Stimulus that is uncomfortable or unpleasant (e.g., excessive heat/cold, shock, etc.)
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Escape Learning
(Punishment Concepts) |
Learning to make a response to end an aversive stimulus
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Avoidance learning
(Punishment Concepts) |
Learning to make a response to postpone or prevent discomfortp
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Memory
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An active system that receives, encodes, stores, alters, and recovers info
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Encoding
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The conversion of info into a form in which it can be stored in memory
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Storage
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The process by which info is retained for future use
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Retrieval
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The process of recovering info that has been stored in memory
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Sensory Memory
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The intitial memory process; retaines an exact copy of what you see/hear for a few seconds or less
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Icon
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A fleeting mental image that retains visual info for less than a second
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Echo
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A brief flurry of activity in the auditory sytem that sores sound for up to 2 seconds
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Selective attention
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Focusing on a selected portion of a sensory input
-This determines what info will move on to short-term memory |
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Short-Term Memory (STM)
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aka working memory(mental scratchpad that is used for thinking and problem solving)
-Holds small amounts of info briefly -You determine what info is placed in STM by focusing on that info(selective attention) |
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Storing phonetically
(STM) |
Short-term memories are most often stored by sound
-Very sensitive to interruption or interference |
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Long-Term Memory (LTM)
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Stores info relatively permanently
-unlimited capactiy -Info is stored on the basis of its meaning and importance -The more you know, the easier it is to add new info to LTM -Is easiest to link info from STM with existing info in LTM |
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Digit span (STM)
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Test of attention and STM
-How many digits can you remember? -e.g., read these numbers once, then close your eyes and see how many you can remember in order |
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Information bits (STIM)
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Meaningful units of information(e.g., letters, numbers, words, or phrases)
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Recoding (STM)
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Reorganizing/modifying information in STM
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Information Chunks
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Information bits that are grouped into larger chunks
-chunking |
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Maintenance rehearsal
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Silently repeating or mentally reviewing information to keep it in STM
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Elaborative rehearsal
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Linking new info to knowledge that is already in LTM
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Constructive processing (LTM)
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"Gaps" in memory are filled in using logic, reasoning, or new information
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Pseudomemories (LTM)
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False memories that a person believes are true or accurate
-Can be a serious problem in eyewitness testimony |
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Network model
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A model of memory that view it as an organized system of linked idea
-May be arranged according to rules, categories, images, similarity, meaning, etc. -Closer links are remembered faster than further ones. |
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Procedural memory (LTM)
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Memory for learned skills, tasks, and actions
-e.g., riding a bike, swinging a golf club, driving, making an omelette |
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Declaritive memory (LTM)
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Memory for specific factual infomration
-e.g., names, faces, dates, ideas, trivia |
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Semantic memory (LTM)
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A mental dictionary or encylopedia of basic knowledge about the world
-e.g., basic language, names of objects, months of the year, basic math skills, etc. |
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Episodic memory (LTM)
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Autobiographical record of life events that are linked w/ specific times and places
-e.g., first date, first speeding ticket, your most recent birthday, what you did yesterday |
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Tip-of-the-tongue state
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The feeling that certain info is available but not quite retrievable
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Feeling of knowing
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A preliminary sense that you will be able to remember something
-e.g., when game show contestants' faces light up before they hit the buzzer |
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Recall
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Requires direct retrieval of facts or info with minimal external ecues (e.g., short answer questions)
-Serial position effect: The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list but forget the items in the middle |
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Recognition
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Requires correct identification of learned information (e.g., multiple choice questions)
-Recognition is typically superior to recall |
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Relearning
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The process of learning information again that was learned at an earlier time
-Memory traces allow this information to be learned more quickly than completely new info -Savings score: Amount of time saved when relearning info (vs. learning new info) |
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Explicit memory
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Past experiences or info that is consciously brought to mind
-e.g., info that you are aware of knowing |
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Implicit memory
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Past experiences or info that lies outside of awareness
-e.g., info that you do not realize you know |
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Priming
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Using cues to activate hidden memories and facilitate retrieval of info
-e.g., providing the first letters of each word in a solution |
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Mental images
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Mental pictures or visualizations that aid memory
-How many stoplights are there between your dorm and your favorite pub? |
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Eidetic imagery
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The ability to retain an image and to "project" it mentally for a short period
-Most common in childhood; fades by adulthood -Chimps are apparently superior at this |
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Curve of forgetting
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A graph that displays the amount of info remembered after varying lengths of time
-Forgetting is rapid at first, then slowly declines -Meangingful info is retained longer |
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Encoding failure
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Failure to store enough info for a memory to be created (encoded) in the first place
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Memory decay
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Loss of memories due to the fading or weakening of memory traces (changes in nerve cells or brain activity)
-Affects sensory memory and STM |
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Disuse
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Memory traces weaken when memories are not used or retrieved often enough ("Use it or lose it")
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Memory Cues
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Details associated w/ a memory that may be used to enhance retrieval
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State-dependent learning
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When your bodily state provides a cue for later retrieval
-Memory retrieval may be enhanced when your bodily states during learning and retrieval match |
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Memory cues
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Details associated w/ a memory that may be used to enhance retrieval
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State-dependent learning
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Wwhen your bodily states provides a cue for later retrieval
-Memory retrieval may be enhacned when your bodily states during learning and retrieval match |
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Interference
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The tendency for new memories to impede the retrieval of older memories, and vice versa
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Repression
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The act of unconsviously pushing unwanted memories outside of awareness
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Supression
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An active, conscious effor to push something out of your awareness
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Flashbulb memory
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Memories created during times of high emotion that are especially vivid
-May be positive or negative |
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Consolidation
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The process by which long-term memories are formed
-It takes a certain amount of time to move memories from STM to LTM -Sleep helps to consolidate info in memory |
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Hippocampus
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"Switching station" in the brain that transfers info between STM and LTM
-Damage to the hippocampus (via head injuries, etc.) results in the inability to form new memories |
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Retrograde Amnesia
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Inability to remember events that occurred after the injury or trauma
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Recitation
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Summarize/restate info while you are learning; this aids future retrieval efforts
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Elaborative rehearsal
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Link facts together and look for connections to existing knowledge
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Organization
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Organize concepts into chunks; create summaries for concepts and chapters
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Spaced practice
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Incorporate short breaks into your study sessions
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Sensation
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The process by which stimulation of the sensory receptors creates a sensory impression
-This produces neural impulses that make us aware of conditions inside or outside the body |
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Perception
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The organization of sensations into meaningful patterns, which produces one's experience of sensory info
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Sensory analysis
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The process by which our senses divide sensory info into important elements
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Perceptual features
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Basic stimulus patterns or elements (e.g., lines, shapes, colors, designs, etc.)
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Sensory coding
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The conversion (coding) of sensory info into neural messages that the brain can easily interpret
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Sensory localization
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Activation of different areas of the brain produces different sensory experiences
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Visible spectrum
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The range of electromagnetic energies to which the eyes respond
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Hue
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Basic color categories (e.g., red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet)
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How vision works
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Light enters through the pupil (opening in eyeball)
The cornea and the lens focus this light onto the retina (back of the eye) |
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Cornea
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Transparent membrane in the front of the eye that bends light inward to focus incoming images
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Lens
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Projects incoming light rays onto a light-sensitive area in the back of the eye
-Accommodation: The process by which muscles attached to the lens alter the shap of the eye |
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Retina
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The light-sensitive layer of cells on which images are projected
-Contains photoreceptors (light-sensitive cells) |
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Hyperopia (farsightedness)
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-Occurs wen eye is too short
-Can see distant objects clearly, but nearby objects are blurred |
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Presbyopia
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Farsightedness caused by aging
-Lens becomes less flexible and less able to accommodate |
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Myopia (nearsightedness)
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-Occurs when eye is too long
-Can see nearby objects clearly, but distant objects are blurred |
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Astigmatism
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-Occurs when the cornea or the lens is misshapen(relatively common)
-Eye has more than one focal point -Part of vision is focused while another part is fuzzy |
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Rods
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-Generate only black and white sensations(no color)
-Work best in dim light (more sensitive than cones) -100 million |
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Cones
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-Responsible for color sensations and fine details
-Work best in bright light -6.5 million |
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Blind Spot
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Area of the retina that lacks any visual receptors
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Visual acuity
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The sharpness of visual perception
-Rods and cones play a large role in this |
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Fovea
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A small region of densely packed cones in the center of the retina (no rods)
-This area produces the sharpest images |
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Peripheral Vision
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Vision at the edges of the visual field created by areas outside the voea (primarily rods)
-Creates vision 20 degrees from the retina's center -Highly sensitive to movement |
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Trichromatic theory
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-Three types of cones for red, green, or blue light
-Other colors are created from combos of these -Black/white vision is produced by rods -Applies to activity w/in the retina of the ey |
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Opponent-process theor
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-Vision analyzes colors into "either or" messages
-Three coding systems: red or green, yellow or blue, and black or white -Exciting one color in a pair (e.g., red) prevents the other color (e.g., green) from being stimulated -Afterimages of the opposwite color may occur after the initial stimulus is removed -Applies to activity in the optic pathways and the brain after info leaves the eye |
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Total color blindess
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-Inability to perceive color
-Caused by non-functioning or nonexistent cones -Perceive the world in black and white |
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Color weakness (Partial color blindness)
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-Inability to perceive certain colors
-e.g., perceive red and green as the same color(yellowish-brown) |
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What is the Isihara test?
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commonly used to measure color blindness and color weakness
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Sound waves
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Rythmic movement of air molecules
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Pitch
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Higher or lower tone of sound
-Is determined by frequency of sound waves (number of waves per second) |
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Loudness
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Intensity of sound
-Is determined by amplitude of sound waves (phsyical height of the sound wave) |
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Pinna
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Visible, external part of the ear
-Sound enters the ear and pinna acts as a funnel to concentrate sounds |
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Tympanice membrane
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Eardrum
-Sound waves enter the ear canal and collide w/ the tympanic membrane, setting it into motion |
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Auditory Ossicles
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Three small bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup)
-When tympanic membrane is activated, it causes these bones to vibrate |
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Cochlea
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Snail-shaped organ in the inner ear that contains fluid
-Oval window:Membrane on the cochlea that moves back and forth, creating waves in the fluid |
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Hair cells
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Receptor cells in the cochlea that detect waves in the fluid and convert them to neural impulses
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Organ of Corti
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Center of cochlea that contains hair cells, canal, and membranes
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Frequency theory
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As pitch rises, tones are converted to nerve impulses of corresponding frequency
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Place theory
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-Higher and lower tones stimulate specific areas of the cochlea
-Higher tones register most strongly at the base of the cochlea -Lower tones move hair cells near the outer tip of the cochlea |
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Conductive hearing loss
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-Caused by poor transfer of sounds from the eardrum to the inner ear
-Can often be overcome w/ use of a hearing aid |
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Sensorineural hearing loss
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-Caused by damage to the hair cells or auditory nerve
-Is often the result of exposure to very loud noises -Can sometimes be overcome via a cochlear implant |
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Olfaction
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Sense of smell
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Gustation
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Sense of taste
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Four basic taste sensations
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Sweet, salty, sour, bitter
-Most sensitive to bitter, then sour, then salty; least sensetive to sweet -Potential 5th taste quality: umami(brothy/savory) |
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Taste buds
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Taste receptor organs located primarily on the top side of the tongue, especially around edges
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