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269 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Memory
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Learning that has persisted over time, info that has been stored and can be retrieved
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3 steps of the human memory system
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Encoding, Storage and Retrieval
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Connectionism
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An information-processing model of memory, views memories as emerging from interconnected neural networks
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Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin's 3 stages of memory
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Sensory Memory, Short-Term memory and Long-term memory
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Working Memory
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A new understanding of the second stage of memory, concentrates on the active processing of info
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Without conscious effort you AUTOMATICALLY PROCESS information about
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space, time, frequency and well learned information
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Effortful Processing
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Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
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Rehearsal
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Conscious repetition
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German philosopher Hermann Ebbinghaus' main idea
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The amount remembered depends upon the time spend learning
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Spacing Effect
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Those who learn quickly also forget quickly
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Testing Effect
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Repeated quizzing of previously studied material helps
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Serial Position Effect
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Our tendency to recall best the first and last items in a list (recency and primacy effects)
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Visual Encoding
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Encoding of images
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Acoustic Encoding
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Encoding of sounds
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Semantic Encoding
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Encoding of meaning
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Value of semantic encoding
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Processing a word deeply by its meaning produces better recognition later than does shallow processing
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Self Reference Effect
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Information deemed relevant to me is processed more deeply and remains more accessible
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Imagery
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Mental pictures, a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding
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Rosy retrospection
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Our memory of an experience is often colored by its best or worst moment
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Information is maintained in short term memory only briefly unless it is...
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rehearsed
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Mnemonics
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Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
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Chunking
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Organizing items into familiar manageable units; often occurs automatically
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Iconic memory
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A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
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Echoic Memory
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A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
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Short term memory is typically limited so storing ___ of information
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7 bits
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Our capacity for storing long term memories is essentially ____
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limitless
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Where are memories stored in the brain?
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We do not store information in discrete, precise locations in the brain
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Long Term Potentiation (LTP)
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An increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory
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Emotion triggered stress hormones make more ____ available to fuel brain activity
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glucose energy
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The ____, two emotion-processing clusters in the limbic system, boosts activity and available proteins during stress/emotion
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Amygdala
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Flashbulb memory
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A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
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When prolonged, as in sustained abuse or combat, stress can act like an...
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acid, corroding neural connections and shrinking the brain area (hippocampus) that is vital for laying down memories
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Amnesia
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The loss of memory
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Implicit Memory
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Retention independent of conscious recollection (nondeclarative)
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Explicit Memory
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Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare (declarative)
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The Hippocampus
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A neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process EXPLICIT memories for storage
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The Cerebellum
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Plays a key role in forming and storing IMPLICIT memories created by classical conditioning
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Infantile Amnesia
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The implicit reactions and skills we learn during infancy reach far into our future, yet as adults we recall nothing (explicitly) of our first three years
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Recall
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A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve info learned earlier; fill-in-the-blank tests
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Recognition
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A measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned; multiple choice
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Relearning
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Assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
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Retrieval Cues
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Anchor points you can use to access the target information when you want to retrieve it later
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Priming
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The activation, often unconsciously, of partial association in the memory
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Mood congruent memory
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The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
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Premotor cortex
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Planning movements
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Motor cortex
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Actually making movements
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Mirror Neurons
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Neural excitation while watching an action mirrors the neural excitation while performing an action
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Broca's area
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Involved in the production of speech
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3 sins of forgetting
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Absent-Mindedness, Transience and Blocking
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Absent-Mindedness
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Inattention to detail leads to encoding failure
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Transience
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Storage Decay over time
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Blocking
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Inaccessibility of stored info
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3 sins of distortion
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Misattribution, Suggestability and Bias
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Misattribution
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Confusing the source of info
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Suggestability
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The lingering effects of misinformation
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Bias
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Belief-colored recollections
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1 sin of intrusion
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Persistence: unwanted memories
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Forgetting Curve
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The course of forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time
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Proactive Interference
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Disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
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Retroactive interference
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Disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
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Repression
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Freud's idea that our memory systems self-censored info
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Misinformation Effect
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Incorporating misleading info into one's memory of an event
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Imagination Inflation
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Imagine something enough and you remember it as if it happened
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Source Amnesia
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Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about or imagined
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Memories from experience have...
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more detail
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Memories from imagination have...
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the main gist, and stronger associated meanings and feelings
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Eyewitnesses, whether right or wrong express...
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roughly similar self-assurance
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Hindsight bias
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How we feel and what we know today seems to be how we have always felt and always known
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Interviewers who ask children leading questions can...
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plant false memories
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Critics have charged that clinicians who use memory work techniques such as ___, ___ and ___ recover false memories
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guided imagery, hypnosis and dream analysis
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Truths about memory debate:
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Sexual abuse, injustice and forgetting happen, recovered memories are commonplace, memories before 3 are unreliable and memories "recovered" through hypnosis or drugs can be unreliable
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The most common response to a traumatic experience:
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They're etched on the mind as vivid, persistent and haunting memories
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Cognition
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The mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating
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Concepts
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A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas or people
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Prototype
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A best example of a category
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Algorithms
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Methodical, logical rules or procedures that guarantees solving a particular problem
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Heuristic
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Simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently
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Insight
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Sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem
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Confirmation Bias
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Tendency to SEARCH for info that supports our perceptions
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Fixation
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The inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set
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Mental set
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A tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
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Functional Fixedness
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Think of things only in terms of their usual function
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Representative Heuristic
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Judge the likelihood of things in terms of how well they represent particular prototypes
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Overconfidence
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Overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge and judgments
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Availability heuristic
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Base our judgments on how mentally available the information is
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Belief Perseverance
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Cling to our beliefs in the face of contradictory evidence
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Intuition
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Effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought
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Framing
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The way an issue is posed
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Phonemes
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Smallest distinctive sound units; 869
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Morphemes
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smallest unit that carries meaning
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Grammar
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system of rules
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Semantics
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rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes
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Syntax
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rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences
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Receptive language
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Ability to pronounce speech
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Productive language
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ability to produce words
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Babbling stage
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4 months; spontaneously utter various sounds
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Point when sounds and intonations outside the language household disappear in babies' speech
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10 months
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One word stage
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1-2, single words
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Two word stage
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age 2, two word statements
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Behaviorist B.F. Skinner says:
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Operant Learning to explain language development; association, imitation and reinforcement
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Chomsky says:
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Inborn universal grammar to explain language development; a language acquisition device
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Aphasia
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Impairment of Language
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Broca's area
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Controls language expression
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Wernicke's area
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Controls language reception and comprehension
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Angular gyrus
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Involved in reading out loud
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How do parts of the brain work as a whole?
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Specialization and Integration
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Benjamin Lee Whorf's Linguistic Determinism
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Language determines the way we think
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What do animals think?
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Form concepts, display insight, natural tool users, numerical ability, and transmit cultural patters
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Both human memory and computer memory can be viewed as ___ systems
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Information Processing
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Automatic processing
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Encoding that does not require attention or effort
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A pioneering researcher in verbal memory
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Hermann Ebbinghaus
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Additional rehearsal, or ___, increases retention
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overlearning
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Peg word system
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Using a jingle, such as the one that begins "one is a bun"
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Information is maintained in short-term memory only briefly unless it is...
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rehearsed
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George Miller
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Discovered that our short term memory capacity is about 7 bits/chunks of info
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Short term memory for random digits is slightly ___ than for random letters
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better
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Memory for information we ___ is somewhat better than that for information we___.
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hear, see
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Both children and adults have short-term recall for roughly as many words as they can speak in ____seconds
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2
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Memory trace
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The physical basis of memory
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Researchers found that when learning occurs in the sea slug, the neurotransmitter ___ is released in greater amounts, making synapses more efficient
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serotonin
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After learning has occurred, a sending neuron needs ___ prompting to fire, and the number of ___ ___ is stimulates may increase
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less, receptor sites
(Long term potentiation) |
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After LTP has occured, an electric current passed through the brain...
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Will not disrupt old memories and will wipe out recent experiences
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Damage on the LEFT side of the HIPPOCAMPUS impairs ____ memory
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verbal
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Damage on the RIGHT side of the HIPPOCAMPUS impairs ____ memory
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visual
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The Hippocampus is active during ___ sleep
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Slow wave
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The ___ is one of the last brain structures to mature
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Hippocampus
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The disruption of memory that occurs when football players have been knocked out provides evidence for the importance of:
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Consolidation in the formation of new memories
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The ability to retrieve information not in conscious awareness
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Recall
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The best retrieval cues come from associations formed at the time we ___ the memory
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Encode
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The process by which associations can lead to retrieval is called ___
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Priming
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The type of memory in which emotions serve as retrieval cues is referred to as ____ memory
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State-dependent
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Our tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with our current emotional state is called ___ memory
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Mood-Congruent
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What are the 3 measures of retention?
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Recall, recognition and retrieval
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Which measure of retention is the least sensitive in triggering retrieval?
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Recall
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Fill in the blank questions are to multiple choice questions, as...
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Recall is to recognition
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Being in a bad mood after a hard day of work, Susan could think of nothing positive in her life. This is best explained as an example of:
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Mood congruent memory
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In an effort to remember the name of the classmate who sat behind her in fifth grade, Martina mentally recited the names of other classmates who sat near her. Martina's effort to refresh her memory by activating related associations is an example of:
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priming; the conscious or unconscious activation of particular associations in memory
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Darren was asked to memorize a list of letters that included v, q, y and j. He later recalled these letters as e, u, i and k, suggesting that the original letters had been encoded
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Acoustically
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The first thing Karen did when she discovered that she has misplaced her keys was to re-create in her mind the day's events. That she had little difficulty doing so illustrates:
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automatic processing
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Although you can't recall the answer to a question on your psychology midterm, you have a clear mental image of the textbook page on which it appears. Evidently, your ___ encoding of the answer was ___.
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Visual, automatic
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Brenda has trouble remembering her new five-digit zip plus 4 digit address code. Explanation?
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Nine digits are at or above the upper limit of most people's short term memory capacity
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One reason for age related memory decline is that the brain areas responsible for...
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encoding new information are less responsive
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Storage decay may be caused by a gradual fading of the physical
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memory trace
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Positive transfer
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Old information facilitates our learning of new information
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Imagination Inflation
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False memories can be created when people are induced to imagine non-existent events
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Memories of events that happened before age ___ are unreliable
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Three
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The SQ3R study technique identifies five strategies for boosting memory:
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Study, question, read, rehearse and review
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Shape of the typical forgetting curve:
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A rapid initial decline in retention becoming stable thereafter
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Repression is an example of
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Motivated Forgetting
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Does the misinformation effect have to do with encoding or retrieval?
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Retrieval
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After finding her old combination lock, Janice can't remember its combination because she keeps confusing it with the combination of her new lock. She is experiencing...
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Retroactive Interference
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When Carlos was promoted, he moved into a new office with a new phone extension. Every time he is asked for his phone number, Carlos first thinks of his old extension, illustrating the effects of...
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Proactive interference
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When he was 8 Frank was questioned by the Police about a camp counselor who was molesting children. Even though he was not, in fact, molested by the counselor, Frank "remembers" the counselor touching him inappropriately. Frank's false memory is an example of...
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Suggestability
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Suggestability
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The lingering effects of misinformation
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Insight is preceded by ___ lobe activity involved in focusing attention and accompanies by a burst activity in the __ __ lobe.
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frontal; right temporal
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A cure for belief perseverance is to...
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consider the opposite
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You hear that one of the Smith children is an outstanding Little League player and immediately conclude it's their son rather than any of the 4 daughters. You reached your quite possibly false conclusion as a result of...
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representative heuristic
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Your stand on an issue such as the use of nuclear power for electricity involves personal judgment. In such a case, one memorable occurrence can weigh more heavily than a book-full of data, thus illustrating:
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the availability heuristic
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Boris the chess master selects his next move by considering moves that would threaten his opponent's queen. His opponent, a computer, considers all possible moves. Boris is using a ___ and the computer is using a ___
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heuristic, algorithm
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If politicians from opposing parties see new information as supporting their beliefs, it is clear that both were victims of:
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confirmation bias
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Failing to see that an article of clothing can be inflated as a life preserver is an example of...
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Functional Fixedness
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Airline reservations typically decline after a highly publicized airplane crash because people overestimate the incidence of such disasters. In such instances, their decisions are being influenced by:
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the availability heuristic
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In relation to ground beef, consumers respond more positively to an ad describing it as 75% lean as opposed to 25% fat. This is an example of...
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framing
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Receptive language
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the ability to comprehend speech
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Productive language
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the ability to produce words
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Many natural babbling sounds are ___ pairs, formed by___
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consonant vowel; bunching the tongue in the front of the mouth
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Telegraphic speech
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sentences containing mostly nouns and verbs
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Even before 1 year of age, infants are able to discern...
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word breaks
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Many bilingual children are better able to inhibit their attention to irrelevant information
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Bilingual Advantage
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Nondeclarative memory
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thinking in terms of mental pictures
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Skeptics believe that some chimpanzee trainers may be overgenerous in interpreting ambiguous animal signing, thanks to their ___ ___, the tendency to see what they want or expect to see
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Perceptual set
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The English language has approximately ___ phonemes
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40
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The linguistic determinism hypothesis is challenged by the finding that...
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People with no word for a certain color can still perceive the color accurately
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Thinking affects our ___, which then affects our thought
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language
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In a soccer game, Laura suffered damage to her left temporal lobe. As a result, she is unable to speak in meaningful sentences. The damage affected...
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Wernicke's area
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Walking through the halls of his high school 10 years after graduation, Tom experienced a flood of old memories. Tom's experience showed the role of...
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Context Effects
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The misinformation effect provides evidence that memory...
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may be reconstructed during recall according to how questions are framed
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Motivation
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A need or desire that ENERGIZES and DIRECTS behavior
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Instinct Theory / Evolutionary Perspective
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Focuses on genetically predisposed behaviors, but failed to explain human motives
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Instinct
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A complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned
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Drive Reduction Theory
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A physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a DRIVE) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
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Homeostasis
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Maintenance of a steady internal state
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Incentive
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(+) or (-) environmental stimuli that lures or repels us
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Arousal Theory
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Finding the right level of stimulation; having all our biological needs satisfied, we feel driven to experience stimulation and hunger for information
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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
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Physiological, Safety, Belongingness and Love, Esteem, Self Actualization, Self transcendence
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Glucose
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The form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues
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An increase in insulin will...
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decrease glucose
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Lateral Hypothalamus
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Brings on hunger
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Ventromedial hypothalamus
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Depresses hunger
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Orexin
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Hunger triggering hormone
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Ghrelin
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Hunger arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach
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Obestatin
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Sends out a fullness signal
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Set Point
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The point at which an individual's weight thermostat is supposedly set
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Basal Metabolic Rate
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The body's resting rate of energy expenditure
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Carbs help boost levels of ___ which ___
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Serotonin; calming effects
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Social Facilitation
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People eat more when eating with others
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Families of anorexia patients tend to be
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Competitive, high achieving and protective
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The immediate determinants of body fat are the ___ of fat cells
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size and number
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Once the number of fat cells ___, it never ___
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increases; decreases
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The Sexual Response Cycle
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Excitement phase, plateau phase, orgasm, resolution phase
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Refractory period
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(males) lasting from a few minutes to a day or more, during which he is incapable of another orgasm
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Sexual Disorders
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Problems that consistently impair sexual arousal or functioning
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In mammals, females become sexually receptive when secretion of estrogens peak during...
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ovulation
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Habituation
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With repeated exposure, the emotional response to any erotic stimulus often lessens
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Imagined Stimuli
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Genital arousal accompanies all types of dreams, even though most dreams have no sexual content
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Why teen pregnancy?
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Ignorance, minimal communication about birth control, guilt, alcohol use, mass media norms of unprotected promiscuity
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Predictors of sexual restraint
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High intelligence, religious engagement, father presence, participation in service learning programs
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Fraternal birth order effect
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Men who have older brothers are somewhat more likely to be gay
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In Lesbian women and straight men, the ___ hemisphere of the brain is larger
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Right
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Cyber ostracism elicits increased activity in the ____, that also activates in response to physical pain
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Anterior Cingulate Cortex
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Flow
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A involved, focused state of consciousness, with diminshed awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal engagement of one's skills
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Industrial-Organizational (IO) Psychology
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Applies psychology's principles to the workplace
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Personnel Psychology
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Harnessing strengths
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Structured Interviews
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Offer a disciplined method of collecting information
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Ways to appraise performance
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Checklists, graphic rating scales, behavior rating scales, 360 degree feedback
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Halo Errors
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One's overall evaluation of an employee biases ratings of their specific work-related behavior
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Leniency and Severity Errors
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Too easy or too harsh on everyone
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Recency Error
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Focus only on recent behavior
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Achievement motivation
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Desire for significant accomplishment, for mastering skills or ideas, control and for rapidly attaining a high standard
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Grit
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Passionate dedication to an ambitious, long term goal
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Task leadership
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Setting standards, organizing work and focusing attention on goals
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Social Leadership
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Explaining decisions, mediating conflicts and building high-achieving teams
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Voice Effect
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If given a change to voice their opinion during a decision making process, will respond more positively to the decision
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4 Perspectives on motivation are...
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Instinct/Evolutionary Theory, Drive-Reduction Theory, Arousal Theory and Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
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Behavior is pushed by ___ and then pulled by ___
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drives; incentives
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___ satisfaction is strongly predictive of subjective well being in poorer nations, whereas ___ satisfaction matters more in wealthy nations and ___ in individualist nations
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Financial; home-life; self-esteem
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Mary loves hang-gliding. It would be most difficult to explain Mary's behavior according to...
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Drive-Reduction Theory
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When insulin is increased and glucose decreases, hunger...
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increases
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Leptin
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Chemical secreted by bloated fat cells
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PYY
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Digestive tract hormone that signals fullness
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Orexin
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hunger-triggering hormone secreted by the hypothalamus
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Ghrelin
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Hunger-arousing hormone secreted by empty stomach
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Obestatin
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Hormone secreted by stomach that signals fullness
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Unit Bias
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Tendency to mindlessly eat more when portions are larger
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The families of bulimia patients have a high incidence of childhood ___ and ___ self evaluation
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obesity; negative
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In the US, over __% of adults are obese
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34
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Fat tissue has a ___ metabolic rate than lean tissue. The result is that fat tissue requires ___ food energy to be maintained.
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lower; less
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A particular variant of the gene called ___ has been shown to nearly double a person's risk of becoming obese
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FTO
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Research has shown that erotic stimuli ___ nearly as arousing for women as for men
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are
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Brain scans reveal more activity in the ___ among men who are viewing erotica
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amygdala
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Compared to women's fantasies, men's sexual fantasies are more...
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frequent, physical and less romantic
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Rates of teen intercourse are roughly similar in ___ and ___ but much lower in ___ and ___ countries
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Western Europe; Latin America; Asian; Arab
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Compared with European teens, American teens have ___ rates of intercourse, ___ rates of contraceptive use and thus ___ rates of teen pregnancy and abortion
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lower; lower; higher
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Erotic plasticity
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Sexual orientation among women tends to be less strongly felt and potentially more changeable
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Research has confirmed that homosexual men have more relatives on their ___ side than on their ___ side
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mothers; fathers
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Exposure of a fetus to the hormones typical of females between ___ and ___ months after conception may predispose the developing human to become attracted to males
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2; 5
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According to Freud, the healthy life is filled with ___ and ___
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love; work
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In industrialized nations, the nature of work has changed from ___ to ___ to ___
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farming; manufacturing; knowledge work
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Organizational Psychology
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Examines how work environments and management styles influence worker motivation
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Human factors psychology
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Focuses on the design of appliances, machines and work environments
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Interviewer Illusion
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Interviewers tend to over estimate their interviewing skills and intution
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Because Brent believes that his employees are intrinsically motivated to work for reasons beyond money, Brent would be described as a ___ manager
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social-oriented
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Hermann Ebbnghaus's experiment
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memorized lists of nonsense syllables and tested himself; rehearsal works but is not the most efficient
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Low Level Processing
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Superficial details; visual encoding and acoustic encoding
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High Level Processing
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Deep meaning; imagery and semantic encoding
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Length that short term/working memory lasts
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20 to 30 seconds
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The Hippocampus's shape
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Two-sided wishbone
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Location of Cerebellum
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Base rear of brain by spinal cord
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2 types of Explicit Memory
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Episodic and Semantic
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Episodic (explicit) memory
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Autobiographical memories, with context
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Semantic (explicit) memory
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General knowledge
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Procedural (implicit) Memory
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Motor and Cognitive skills
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Dispositions (implicit)
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Through conditioning
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Where are implicit memories stored?
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Cerebellum and basal ganglia
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An attribute list
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Check list of characteristics, used for formal concepts such as triangle, when learned in an academic exercise
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Changing the way you talk about a group of people can change the way you...
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think about them
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Hunger is a ___, NOT a ___
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drive; need
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DRIVES energize you and ___ you towards behaviors that would meet your most pressing NEED; but the INCENTIVE value of each available option will___ you to what you actually DO
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push; pull
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Some people (___) react to the sight, sound and smell of food; more than others (___)
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externals; internals
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