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84 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Learning |
A systematic relatively permanent change in behavior through experience |
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Behaviorism |
A theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behaviors discounting the importance of mental activity such as thinking wishing and hoping |
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Associative learning |
Learning that occurs when an organism makes a connection or an association between two things |
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Observational learning |
Learning that occurs through observing and imitating another's behavior. |
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Classical conditioning |
Learning process in which a neural stimulus becomes associated with an innately meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response |
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Unconditional stimulus |
(US) a stimulus that produces a response without prior learning |
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Unconditional response |
(UR) an unlearned reaction that is automatically elicited by the unconditioned stimulus |
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Conditioned stimulus |
(CS) a previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus |
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Conditioned response |
(CR) the learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after conditioned stimulus is paired with unconditional stimulus |
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Generalization |
The tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response |
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Discrimination |
The process of learning to respondro certain stimuli and not others |
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Extinction |
The weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent |
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Spontaneous recovery |
The process in classical conditioning by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay, without further conditioning. |
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Operant conditioning |
A form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of the behaviors occurence |
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Law of effect |
Thorndikes law stating that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and that behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened |
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Shaping |
Rewarding successive approximations of a desired behavior |
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Reinforcement |
The process by which a stimulus or event following a particular behavior increases the probability that behavior will happen again |
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+ reinforcement |
The presentation of a stimulus following a given behavior in order the increase the frequency of that behavior |
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- reinforcement |
The removal of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to increase the frequency of that behavior |
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Learned helplessness |
An organisms learning through experience with negative stimuli that it has no control over negative outcomes |
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Generalization(in operant learning) |
Performing a reinforced behavior in a different situation. |
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Discrimination (in operant conditioning) |
The process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not others. |
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Extinction (in operant conditioning) |
Decreases in the frequency of a behavior when the behavior is no longer reinforced) |
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Schedules of reinforcement |
Specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced |
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+Punishment |
The presentation of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior |
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-Punishment |
The removal of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior |
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Observational learning |
Attention Retention Motor reproduction Reinforcement |
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Memory |
The retention of information or experience over time as the result of 3 key processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval. |
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Encoding |
The first step in memory; the process by which information gets into memory storage. |
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Divided attention |
Concentrating on more than one activity at the same |
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Sustained attention |
The ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time. |
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Levels of processing |
A continuum of memory processing from shallow to intermediates to deep, with deeper processing producing better memory. |
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Elaboration |
The formation of a number of different connections around a stimulus at any given level of memory encoding |
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Storage |
The retention of information over time and how this information is represented in memory |
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Sensory memory |
Memory system that involves holding information from the world. |
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Short term memory |
Limited capacity memory system in which information is usually retained for only as long as 30 seconds |
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Short term memory |
Limited capacity memory system in which information is usually retained for only as long as 30 seconds |
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Working memory |
A combination of components including short term memory and attention that allow individuals to hold information temporarily as they perform cognitive tasks |
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Long term memory |
A relatively perminent type of memory that stores huge amounts of information for a long time |
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Explicit memory or declarative memory |
The conscious recollection of information such a specific facts or events and, at least in humans, information that can be verbally communicated. |
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Episodic memory |
The retention of information about the where, when, and what of life's happenings. This is how individuals remember life's episodes. |
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Semantic memory |
A person's knowledge about the world, including his or her areas of expertise; general knowledge, such as of things learned in school, and every day knowledge. |
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Implicit memory or non declarative memory |
Memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without a conscious recollection of that experience |
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Procedural memory |
Memory for skills |
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Retrieval |
The memory process that occurs when information that was retained in memory comes out of storage |
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Serial position effect |
The tendency to recall the items at the beginning and end of a list more readily than those in the middle |
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Decay theory |
Theory stating that when an individual learns something new, a neurochemical memory trace forms, but over time this trace disintegrates; suggests that the passage of time always increases for getting. |
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Interference theory |
The theory that people forget not because memories are lost from storage but because other information gets in the way of what they want to remember |
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Proactive interference |
Situation in which material that was learned earlier disrupts the recall of material that was learned later |
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Retro active interference |
Situation in which material that was learned later disrupts the retrieval of information that was learned early |
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Anterograde amnesia |
A memory disorder that affects the retention of new information and events |
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Retrograde amnesia |
Memory loss for a segment of the past but not for new events |
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Tips for organizing |
Review course notes, organize the material, experiment with different organizational techniques. |
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Tips for encoding |
Pay attention. Process information. Elaborate. Use imagery. Used chunking. |
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Tips for rehearsing |
Rewrite, talk to people, test yourself, ask yourself questions. |
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Tips for retrieving |
Use retrieval cues, sit comfortably, take deep breaths, and stay calm. |
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Cognition |
The way in which information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing. |
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Thinking |
The process of manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting critically or creatively. |
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Concept |
Mental categories that are used to group objects, events, and characteristics. |
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Prototype model |
A model emphasizing that when people evaluate whether a given item reflects a certain concept they compare the item with the most typical item. Family resemblance. |
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Problem solving |
The mental process of finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available |
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Sub goals |
Intermediate goals or intermediate problems devised to put the individual in a better position for reaching the final goal or solution. |
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Algorithms |
Strategies, including formulas, instructions, and the testing of all possible solutions |
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Heuristics |
Shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem but do not guarantee an answer |
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Functional fixedness |
Failing to solve a problem as a result of fixation on a things usual functions |
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Reasoning |
The mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions |
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Inductive reasoning |
Reasoning from specific observations to make generalizations |
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Deductive reasoning |
Reasoning from a general case that is known to be true to a specific instance |
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Decision making |
The mental activity of evaluating alternatives and choosing among them |
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Confirmation bias |
The tendency to search for and use information that supports one's ideas rather than refutes them |
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Hindsight bias |
The tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that one has accurately predicted in outcome. |
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Availability heuristic |
A prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events |
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Base rate neglect |
The tendency to ignore statistical information and favor of very specific but vivid information |
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Representativeness heuristic |
The tendency to make judgments about group membership based on physical appearance or the match between a person and one stereotype of a group rather than on available base rate information |
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Open mindfulness |
The state of being receptive to other ways of looking at things |
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Intelligence |
In all purpose ability to do well on cognitive tasks, to solve problems, and to learn from experience. |
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Validity |
The extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure |
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Reliability |
The extent to which a test yields a consistent, reproducible measure of performance |
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Standardization |
The development of uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test and the creation of norm's |
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Intelligence quotient |
An individual's mental and divided by chronological age multiplied by 100. IQ |
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Mental age |
An individual's level of mental development relative to that of others |
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Normal distribution |
SA metrical, bell shaped curve, with a majority of the scores falling in the middle of the possible range and a few scores appearing toward the extremes of the range |
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Heritability |
The proportion of observable differences in a group that can be explained by differences in the genes of the group's members |
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Gifted |
Possessing high intelligence and/or superior talent in a particular area an IQ of 130 or higher |
