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81 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Conceptual Knowledge |
Knowledge that lets us recognize objects and events to make inferences about their properties |
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Concept |
A mental representation of a particular type of thing |
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Category |
Categories are composed of all your known examples of a particular concept. We are talking about a particular person's knowledge - what is in their brain |
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What are categories important? |
They tell us a lot about an object |
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Concept vs Category |
Concept: meaning, answer to what is (blank)?, conveys some properties Category: set of all examples |
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Categorization |
Is the process by which things are placed into categories |
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Definitional approach to categorization |
Determine category membership based on whether the object meets the definition of the category |
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Prototype |
An approach to categorization an average representation of the "typical member of a category" |
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What study gave evidence for prototypes? |
Rosch 1975 |
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High-prototypicallity |
Category member closely resembles category prototype |
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Low-prototypicallity |
Category member doesn't closely resemble category prototype |
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What study gave evidence that prototypicality influences thinking? What was used in the study? |
Smith et al. (1974) Sentence variation |
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What study used repetition priming as more evidence that prototypicality influences thinking? |
Rosch (1975b) |
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Exemplar Approach to Categorization |
Concept is represented by multiple examples Examples are actual category members To categorize, compare the new item to stores examples |
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Hierarchical Organization |
Organization of categories in which larger, more general categories are divided into smaller, more specific categories |
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What study gave evidence that the basic-level is special? |
Rosch et al. 1976 |
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What does preferred level depend on? |
Expertise |
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What study looked at categorization in experts? |
Tanaka and Taylor (1991) |
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Semantic Network Model |
Assumes concepts are arranged in networks that represent the way concepts are organized in the mind |
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Cognitive Economy |
Shared properties are only at higher level nodes Exceptions to higher level properties are stored at lower nodes Inheritance lower level items share properties of higher level items |
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What study found evidence for semantic networks? |
Collins and Quillian (1969) |
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Spreading Activation |
Activation is the arousal level of a node. When a node is activated, activity spreads out along all connected links Concepts that receive activation are primed and more easily accessed from memory |
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Lexical Decision Task |
Used by Meyer and Schvaneveldt to get evidence for spreading activation |
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The Connectionist Approach |
Computer models for representing cognitive processes(also called Parallel distributed processing) |
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Back Propagation |
When the network gets the wrong answer an Error Signal is generated. An error signal transmitted back through the network |
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Two features of Connectionist Approach |
Graceful degradation Generalization of learning |
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Graceful degradation |
Disruption of performance occurs gradually as parts of the system are damaged |
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Generalization of learning |
Because similar concepts have similar representations, the properties of one exemplar are naturally transferred to a new exemplar |
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Mental Imagery |
Experiencing a sensory impression in the absence of sensory input Can occur for any sense |
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What study determined visual imagery is similar to imagery? |
Shepard and Metzler's mental rotation task |
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What study tested Tacit Knowledge theory? |
Finke and Pinker |
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Language |
System of communication using sounds or symbols |
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Is language unique to humans? |
No |
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What is exceptional about human language? |
Arbitrary symbols Refers to other times and places Biggest difference: Human language is hierarchical Uses components that are combined with rules |
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Lexicon |
All the words a person understands |
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Phonems |
Shortest segments of speech that, if changed, changes the meaning of the word |
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Word Frequency Effect |
People identify a word as a word more rapidly to high-frequency words |
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What helps with ambiguity? |
Context |
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What are the two factors at play in a sentence? |
Semantics Syntax |
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Inferences |
Readers create information during reading not explicitly stated in the text |
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Anaphoric Inferences |
Connecting objects/people |
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Instrumental Inferences |
Tools or methods |
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Casual inferences |
Events in one clause caused by events in previous sentence |
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Situation Model |
Mental representation of what a text is about |
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Problem |
A problem occurs when there is an obstacle(s) between the present state of the world and your goal It is not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle |
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Restructuring |
A Gestalt principal The process of changing a problem's representation |
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Insight |
The sudden realization of a problem's solution Often associated with restructuring the problem in your mind |
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Fixation |
A tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of the problem that keeps you from arriving at a solution Common form is functional fixation |
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Mental Set |
A preconceived notion about how to approach a problem Determined by a person's experience and what has worked in the past |
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Problem Space |
A problem is composed of various possible states |
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3 states of Problem Space |
Initial State Goal State Intermediate States |
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Hill Climbing Approach |
Of all the various operators at a particular point, always pick the operator that minimizes the distance between the current state and the goal state |
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Means-end Analysis |
Make choices that reduce differences between initial and goal states Facilitated by creating sub-goals |
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Analogical Transfer |
Transfer of experience with one problem or another |
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Features of a problem |
Structural features: the underlying problem Surface Features: specific details |
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Inductive Reasoning |
Reasoning in which a conclusion follows from consideration of evidence |
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Heuristics |
A rule of thumb that provides a best-guess solution to a problem Likely to provide the correct answer with minimal effort No guarantees accuracy |
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Availability Heuristic |
Events are more easily remembered are judged as being more probable that events that are less easily remembered |
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Representativeness Heuristic |
The probability that event A comes from class B can be determined by how well A resembles the properties of class B |
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Conjunctive Rule |
The probability of a conjunction of two events cannot be higher than A or B alone |
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Law of Large Numbers |
The larger the number of individuals that are randomly drawn from a population, the more representative the resulting group will be of the entire population |
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Confirmation Bias |
We often seek evidence that confirms our beliefs rather than disconfirm it |
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Utility |
How much a person values a particular outcome of a decision |
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Expected Utility |
How much utility you would get from making a particular decision, on average, if you made the decision many times |
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Deductive Reasoning |
Determining whether a statement logically follows from a set of other statements called premise Typically can be expressed in the form of a syllogism |
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Categorical Syllism |
A syllogism in which all the premises and the conclusion being with all, no, or some |
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Validity |
A syllogism is valid when the form of the syllogism indicates that its conclusion follows logically from its two premises |
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Conditional Syllogism |
Have two premises and a conclusion The first premise is an if, then statement |
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Suppose we asked people to form simultaneous images of two or more animals such as a rabbit alongside an elephant. Then, we ask them basic questions about the animals. For example, we might ask if the rabbit has whiskers. Given our knowledge of imagery research, we would except the fastest response to this question when the rabbit is imagined alongside A) a wolf B) an anteater C) a rhinoceros D) a bumblebee |
D) a bumblebee |
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Ron is an avid reader. He has a large vocabulary becauseevery time he comes across a word he doesn't know, he looksit up in the dictionary. Ron encounters 'wanderlust' in a novel,reaches for the dictionary, and finds out this word means'desire to travel.' The process of looking up unfamiliar wordsincreases Ron’s C. syntactical capacity. D. mental set. |
A. lexicon. |
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Language consists of smaller components, like words, thatcan be combined to form larger ones, like phrases, to createsentences, which themselves can be components of a largerstory. This demonstrates the ____ property of language. A. hierarchical B. relational C. parallel D. propositional |
A. hierarchical |
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The typical purpose of subgoals is to B. move the solver directly from the initial state tothe goal state. C. bring the problem solver closer and closer tothe goal state. D. avoid the need to perform means-end analysis. |
C. bring the problem solver closer and closer to the goal state. |
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In Kaplan and Simon's experiment, they presenteddifferent versions of the mutilated checkerboardproblem. Participants in the _____ group preformed thebest. |
D. Words: bread and butter |
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Actions that take the problem from one state toanother are known as |
c. operators |
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People are most successful at noticing ananalogous relationship between problems if theyfocus on |
B. structural features. |
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Every morning your mother comes into your room to yell at you to get out of bed. What kind of reasoning do you use to predict that she will probably do this again tomorrow morning? |
D. Inductive reasoning |
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The conjunction rule states that A. the probability of two events co-occurring is the sum of the probabilities of each event occurring. B. the probability of two events co-occurring is equal to or less than the probability of either event occurring alone. C. people make decisions based upon both the costs and benefits of the choices. D. people make decisions based upon possible benefits when the choices are framed positively and based upon possible costs when the choices are framed negatively. |
B. the probability of two events co-occurring is equal to or less than the probability of either event occurring alone. |
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Not all of the members of everyday categories have the samefeatures. Most fish have gills, fins, and scales. Sharks lack thefeature of scales, yet they are still categorized as fish. Thisposes a problem for the _____ approach to categorization. A.prototype B.exemplar C.definitional D.Lexical |
C.definitional |
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Which term below is most closely associated with semanticnetworks? A. Distributed processing B. Cognitive economy C. Prototype formation D. Serial processing |
B. Cognitive economy |
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Prototypes allow an individual to become familiar with new objects because they are formed from: A. previously learned information B. contextual information C. priming cues D. shared knowledge |
A. previously learned information |
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Back propagation is: A. going back to fill in missing items in the free recall task B. an example of constructive memory C. a form of retroactive interference D. learning mechanism in connectionist models |
D. learning mechanism in connectionist models |
